THE  LIBRARY 

OF 

THE  UNIVERSITY 
OF  CALIFORNIA 

LOS  ANGELES 


H.A. 


SPECIAL    METHOD    IN    HISTORY 


SPECIAL   METHOD    IN 
HISTORY 


A   COMPLETE   OUTLINE   OF   A   COURSE   OF 

STUDY  IN  HISTORY  FOR  THE  GRADES 

BELOW  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 


BY 


CHARLES   A.    McMURRY,  PH.D. 

SUPERINTENDENT  OF   SCHOOLS  AND  DIRECTOR   OF  PRACTICE 

DEPARTMENT,   NORTHERN   ILLINOIS   STATE  NORMAL 

SCHOOL,   DE   KALB,   ILLINOIS 


Nefo 
THE    MACMILLAN    COMPANY 

LONDON:   MACMILLAN   &  CO.,  LTD. 
I9l6 

All  rights  reserved 


COPYRIGHT,    1903, 

BY  THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY. 


S«t  up  and  electrotyped.     Published  August,  1903. 
Reprinted  October,  1904;  May,  September,  1905; 
February,  October,  1908  ;  October,  1909  ;  June,  1910; 
August,  1911  ;  June,  191*  ;  February,  December,  1913; 
January,  December,  1915:  May,  19x6. 


PREFACE 

THIS  book  contains  a  plan  of  a  complete  course  of 
study  in  history  for  the  grades  below  the  high  school. 
It  is  an  attempt  not  only  to  outline  this  historical 
course,  but  also  to  point  out  with  definiteness  the 
materials  which  may  appear  in  each  year's  study,  to 
estimate  the  value  and  fitness  of  the  matter  selected 
for  each  grade,  and  to  discuss  and  illustrate  at  some 
length  the  method  of  handling  these  materials. 

A  separate  chapter  is  given  to  a  somewhat  full 
discussion  of  each  of  the  four  grades  of  work. 

The  chapter  containing  the  course  of  study  names 
the  topics  for  each  year's  work,  and  also  points  out 
at  length  the  correlations  with  geography,  reading, 
and  literature,  while  a  separate  chapter  discusses  the 
value  of  these  correlations. 

The  final  chapter  contains  for  each  year  a  care- 
fully selected  and  arranged  series  of  books  for  chil- 
dren and  teachers.  It  is  hoped  that  this  list  will 
enable  the  teacher  to  carry  out  practically  the  course 
of  study  which  precedes  it. 

In  order  to  carry  out  the  plan  of  oral  instruction 
advocated  for  fourth  and  fifth  grades,  the  author  has 
prepared  three  small  volumes  of  Pioneer  History 
Stories  of  America,  which  are  designed  to  furnish 


970092 


Vi  PREFACE 

the  suitable  story-material  which  may  be  easily  ar- 
ranged for  any  part  of  the  country,  according  to 
local  geographical  position  and  needs. 

This  book  is  one  of  a  series  of  Special  Methods  in 
the  common  school  studies.  The  others  of  the  series 
are  The  Special  Methods  in  the  Reading  of  Complete 
English  Classics,  in  Primary  Reading  and  Oral  Work 
with  Stories,  in  Geography  and  in  Natural  Science. 

The  entire  series  of  Special  Methods  is  designed 
to  work  out  and  apply  in  the  detail  of  each  study 
the  broad  principles  discussed  in  the  General  Method 
and  in  the  Method  of  the  Recitation. 

A  complete  Course  of  Study  for  the  Grades  of  the 
Common  School  is  in  preparation,  which  will  bring 
together  in  two  volumes  the  comprehensive  plans, 
outlines  of  courses,  and  full  references  for  all  the 
studies  of  the  common  school. 

This  course  of  Study  in  History,  while  it  estab- 
lishes American  history  as  the  central  body  of  his- 
torical material,  also  draws  extensively  from  the 
history  of  England  and  of  Europe,  and,  in  connec- 
tion with  reading  and  literature,  looks  for  a  still 
wider  extension  of  the  child's  horizon  of  thought. 


CHARLES  A.  McMURRY. 


PALATKA,  FLORIDA, 
March  24, 1903. 


CONTENTS 


I.    THE  AIM  OF  HISTORY  INSTRUCTION  i 

II.    SELECTION  OF  HISTORICAL  MATERIALS  SUITABLE 

FOR  THE  COMMON  SCHOOL  GRADES       .        .  18 

III.  HISTORY   STORIES   USED  IN  THE   FOURTH  AND 

FIFTH    GRADES.      THE    METHOD   OF    ORAL 

WORK  DISCUSSED  AND  ILLUSTRATED      .        .  34 

IV.  SIXTH  GRADE  IN  HISTORY 119 

V.    HISTORY  IN  THE  SEVENTH  GRADE       .        .        .150 

VI.    EIGHTH-GRADE  HISTORY 181 

VII.    THE   CORRELATION   OF    HISTORY  WITH    OTHER 

STUDIES 222 

VIII.    COURSE  OF  STUDY  IN  HISTORY    ....  238 

IX.    LIST  OF  BOOKS  ARRANGED  ACCORDING  TO  GRADES  269 


vii 


SPECIAL  METHOD   IN   HISTORY 
CHAPTER  I 

THE   AIM    OF    HISTORY    INSTRUCTION 

WITHOUT  dropping  a  plummet  to  the  depths  of  our 
subject  at  the  moment  of  embarking,  we  may  at  least 
say  that  it  is  good  for  children  to  gain  an  intelligent 
interest  in  the  families  and  persons  of  their  neighbor- 
hood, in  the  health  and  comfort  of  the  people  of  their 
own  town,  later  in  the  personal  history  of  well-known 
characters,  such  as  Longfellow,  Lincoln,  John  Win- 
throp,  Charles  Dickens,  and  John  Quincy  Adams,  and 
in  larger  matters  of  public  concern. 

This  intelligent  interest  is  awakened  first  of  all  by 
a  lifelike  picture  of  the  personal  fortunes  of  men  like 
Daniel  Boone,  or  David,  or  Alfred  the  Great.  Such 
biographies  open  a  highway  into  the  struggles  and 
dangers  of  communities  and  young  nations.  The  life 
stories  also  of  inventors  and  benefactors  like  Stephen- 
son,  Fulton,  and  Peter  Cooper,  of  Florence  Night- 
ingale, John  Eliot,  and  William  Penn,  kindle  social 
sympathies  of  lasting  worth.  Children  are  already 
acquainted  with  persons,  and  have  strong  personal 
interests  and  affections,  or,  it  may  be,  the  opposite. 


2  SPECIAL  METHOD  IN  HISTORY 

With  this  early  experience  as  a  basis,  they  can  more 
quickly  interpret  the  lives  of  individuals.  They 
tacitly  compare  themselves  with  such  persons,  and 
are  stimulated  to  like  feelings  and  actions.  The 
lives  of  the  world's  chiefs  are  often  called  the  very 
substance  of  history,  as  in  Carlyle's  "  Heroes  and 
Hero-worship,"  and  in  Emerson's  "  Representative 
Men."  They  serve  as  examples  and  ideals  to  arouse 
enthusiasms,  and  have  an  unestimated  power  in  giving 
the  initial  impulses  toward  the  formation  of  character 
in  children. 

Such  biographies  disclose  to  a  child  the  broad 
arena  of  possible  action,  and  at  the  same  time  give 
an  impulse  to  the  full  stretch  of  his  own  best  powers. 
A  suitable  variety  of  select  biographies  must  act  in  a 
directly  personal  way  upon  each  child.  The  secret 
sources  of  strength  in  each  boy  or  girl  will  thus  be 
touched  and  made  conscious.  So  far  as  biographies 
are  typical  or  representative,  they  give  insight  into 
the  common  interests  of  society  and  are  the  natural 
introduction  to  public  concerns. 

This  intelligent  interest  may  be  awakened  in  the 
common  life  of  the  people,  as  in  old-fashioned  customs 
and  modes  of  dress,  in  the  style  and  peculiarity  of 
their  houses,  furniture,  and  domestic  arrangements,  in 
their  hardships  and  sufferings  caused  by  war,  pes- 
tilence, or  drouth,  in  their  toils  in  field,  forest,  or  shop, 
on  lakes  and  rivers,  in  their  homes  and  family  life,  in 
their  churches  and  religious  ideas,  in  their  games  and 


THE  AIM  OF   HISTORY   INSTRUCTION  3 

amusements,  in  their  schools,  jury  trials,  and  prisons, 
in  their  social,  educational,  and  political  gatherings, 
and  in  the  peculiarities  of  different  nationalities  and 
races  in  our  own  and  other  countries. 

Two  of  our  ablest  writers  in  recent  times,  Green, 
in  England,  and  McMaster,  in  the  United  States, 
have  given  us  instructive  descriptions  of  the  every- 
day life  and  work  of  the  plain  people,  thus  unveiling, 
as  it  were,  the  giant  sinews  and  energies  of  demos, 
the  folk,  as  compared  with  the  puny  arm  of  princes. 
The  teacher  of  history,  like  the  politician  and  his- 
torian, has  been  brought  to  a  change  of  base.  The 
world  is  no  longer  chiefly  concerned  in  the  acts  and 
privileges  of  rulers  and  kings,  but  in  the  mammoth 
social  needs  of  the  people.  As  individuals  hasten  or 
obstruct  this  democratic  social  betterment,  they  are 
important. 

In  this  country,  where  "  We,  the  people,  do  ordain 
and  establish  constitutions,"  it  is  fit  that  the  social 
good  of  all  should  have  the  preeminence. 

The  will  of  the  people,  as  expressed  in  their  public 
and  private  labors,  has  played  and  is  playing  the 
chief  part  in  the  progress  of  our  country.  These 
powerful  folk-tendencies  are  overwhelming.  The 
westward  movement  of  population  into  new  regions, 
the  settling  up  and  shaping  of  new  states,  have  been 
almost  wholly  due  to  the  folk-energy.  The  children 
should  be  led  to  gain  some  appreciation  of  these  race 
achievements  and  of  their  overwhelming  importance. 


4  SPECIAL   METHOD   IN   HISTORY 

It  is  not  necessary  to  settle  the  controversy  between 
Carlyle  and  his  critics  as  to  whether  a  few  great  men 
have  carried  the  world  on  their  shoulders.  In  our 
history  men  have  been  great  leaders  to  the  extent 
to  which  they  have  been  pronounced  exponents  of 

/the  better  popular  will,  —  that  is,  have  been  true 
representatives  of  the  desires  and  tendencies  of  the 
common  people. 

An  intelligent  interest  should  be  awakened  in  trac- 
ing out  the  origin  and  development  of  ideas  and  in- 
stitutions. Our  history  has  been  a  history  of  strong 
and  vigorous  growth,  not  only  in  numbers  and  extent 
of  territory,  in  commerce  and  industry,  in  products 
and  resources,  but  also  in  religious  and  political  ideas, 
in  state  and  national  constitutions,  in  educational  sys- 
tems, in  plans  of  taxation  and  revenue,  and  in  all  the 
institutions  of  the  most  complex  life.  To  trace  the 
origin  and  growth  of  ideas  and  institutions  is  a  most 
valuable  and  interesting  study.  For  example,  the 
idea  of  religious  toleration  was  developed  but  slowly 
and  gradually  among  the  colonists,  but  led  eventually 
to  the  most  important  results  in  giving  freedom  under 
the  constitution,  and  the  complete  separation  of  church 
and  state.  It  is  of  interest  to  trace  the  growth  of  our 
,  post-office  system  in  colonial  times,  then  under  Frank- 
lin's management,  and  later  under  the  federal  govern- 
ment. It  is  by  tracing  these  progressive  steps  in 
commerce,  modes  of  travel,  and  political  and  social 
institutions  that  we  get  some  true  notion  of  the  bear- 


THE  AIM   OF   HISTORY  INSTRUCTION  5 

ing  of  these  things  in  our  present  life.  Our  histo- 
rians have  always  laid  much  stress  upon  the  growth  of 
political  institutions,  such  as  the  gradual  evolution  of 
the  representative  system,  first  in  the  colonies  and 
then  under  the  articles  of  confederation  and  the  con- 
stitution. In  recent  years  much  has  been  said  of  the 
teaching  of  civics  and  civil  government  in  grammar 
schools  and  in  high  schools.  So  far  as  the  grammar 
schools  are  concerned,  the  very  names  of  civics  and 
civil  government  seem  to  point  to  an  abstract  con- 
ception of  government,  to  a  fixed  and  formal  set  of 
documents  and  institutions.  It  would  be  better  for 
the  children  in  the  common  school  to  find  these  con- 
stitutions springing  up  during  the  history  of  the  coun- 
try as  natural  and  necessary  products  of  the  labor  and 
thought  of  the  people.  They  should  see  that  as  the 
people  grow  and  change,  ideas  and  constitutions  grow 
and  change.  That  all  these  institutions  have  the 
vitality  of  the  people's  thoughts  and  need  in  them. 
We  shall  get  a  better  view  of  the  aim  and  educa- 
tive value  of  history  by  an  inquiry  into  the  question  : 
How  far  can  the  children  relive  the  past  ?  can  repro- 
duce in  themselves  the  helpful  experience  of  men  ? 
In  thought,  feeling,  and  imagination,  to  what  extent 
may  a  child  live  over  again  the  scenes,  the  dan- 
gers, the  struggles,  the  disasters,  and  the  triumphs 
of  previous  generations  ?  For  example,  the  long 
labors  and  the  final  landing  of  Columbus  in  America, 
the  life  of  the  Pilgrims  at  Plymouth,  the  voyage  of 


6  SPECIAL  METHOD  IN  HISTORY 

Magellan,  the  struggles  of  the  pioneers,  the  scenes 
in  camps,  in  cabinets,  in  senates,  or  on  the  battle-field  ? 
If  history  can  be  taught  in  *"rh  a  way  that  a  rhilH 
may  take  up  into  himself  thejixgeqenrp  nf  thp  r^rci 
that  all  he  has  read  and  studied  shall  become  a  part 
of  his  real  self,  that  the  experiences  of  men  in  differ- 
ent countries  may  ripen  into  the  wisdom  of  the  youth 
approaching  maturity,  we  shall  see  that  history  may  be 
a  powerful  educator.  But  a  child  can  live  and  feel, 
that  is,  experience,  only  those  things  which  he  can 
appreciate,  both  by  intellect  and  by  sympathy.  If 
this  part  of  the  aim  of  history  is  made  good,  we  must 
be  extremely  careful  in  selecting  those  parts  of  his- 
tory appropriate  to  the  capacity  of  childhood  and 
youth. 

It  should  be  the  aim  of  history  to  bring  the  past 
into  manifest  relation  to  the  present,  and  to  show  how 
historical  ideas  and  experiences  are  being  constantly 
projected  into  the  present,  are,  in  fact,  the  controlling 
forces  in  our  social  and  industrial  life.  The  series  of 
locomotive  engines  in  one  of  our  great  expositions, 
showing  the  steady  improvement  of  the  engine  by 
successive  inventions,  proves  that  our  modern  Mogul 
is  a  concentration  of  all  the  inventive  wisdom  of 
machinists  for  a  hundred  years  and  much  more. 
Likewise,  every  important  institution  of  our  present 
society  is  the  evolved  product  of  a  whole  series  of 
historical  influences.  Such,  for  example,  is  a  great 
insurance  company,  a  university,  a  printing  establish- 


THE  AIM   OF   HISTORY   INSTRUCTION  7 

ment,  the  entire  executive  department  of  the  govern- 
ment, a  shoe  factory,  a  department  store,  and  a  city 
school  system.  History  should  end  with  giving  a 
child  a  much  sharper  understanding  of  the  political 
and  social  world  around  him.  In  tracing  the  evolu- 
tion of  ideas  and  institutions  from  the  beginning  of 
American  history  to  the  present  time,  we  get  a  strong 
momentum  toward  the  right  interpretation  of  present 
conditions.  This  may  be  asking  too  much  of  the 
school  when  we  consider  how  complex,  difficult,  and, 
as  yet,  unsolved  many  of  our  political  and  social  prob- 
lems are ;  but  it  is  still  true  that  one  leading  purpose 
of  history  is  to  interpret  and  value  the  present,  to 
estimate  properly  the  ideas  and  forces  which  are 
now  at  work  around  us.  If  children  have  previously 
figured  out  the  expense  account  of  the  country  in 
achieving  present  results,  if  they  may  realize,  as 
Lincoln  said,  that  each  drop  of  blood  drawn  by  the 
lash  is  paid  for  by  one  drawn  by  the  sword,  they  have 
gained  a  much  better  perspective  from  which  to  view 
our  present  problems.  It  may  be  said,  however,  that 
the  solution  of  our  present  problems  lies  with  men 
and  not  with  children.  Yet  the  swift  evolution  by 
which  children  pass  from  the  schoolroom  into  the 
complex  activities  of  life  is  a  great  admonition  and 
encouragement  to  teachers. 

It  is  often  said  that  one  aim  of  history  is  to  teach 
patriotism.  It  might  be  better  said  that  history 
should  aim  to  clarify  and  purify  the  sentiment  of 


8  SPECIAL  METHOD  IN  HISTORY 

patriotism.  The  crude  feeling  of  patriotism  is  very 
strong  and  demonstrative  in  this  country,  and  it  is  a 
reality,  not  a  boast  nor  a  dream.  It  greatly  needs  to 
be  purified.  Children  should  be  made  more  intelli- 
gent about  our  country  and  more  sensitive  to  its  true 
honor  and  dignity.  This  result  is  attainable  by  the 
schools  because  the  lives,  words,  and  deeds  of  the 
best  patriotic  Americans  are  easily  within  the  reach 
of  teachers  and  children.  Disinterested  American 
patriots,  such  as  Franklin,  Washington,  Lincoln, 
Emerson,  Bryant,  Lowell,  and  many  others  of  the 
same  stamp,  have  given  unmistakable  evidence  in 
their  works  and  words  that  they  fully  appreciated 
that  higher  destiny  toward  which  America  seems  to 
be  moving.  True  patriotism,  by  common  consent, 
does  not  consist  in  magnifying  our  own  country  at 
the  expense  of  England,  the  North  at  the  expense 
of  the  South,  or  America,  right  or  wrong,  at  the 
expense  of  the  world.  To  cultivate  fair-mindedness 
and  honesty,  to  see  clearly  both  sides  of  an  h.istorjr^l 
rnntrQY^rsy,  is,  in  this  respP-£t»  thetruestandard_.of 
history  study.  Americans  have  enough  to  be  proud 
of  without  belittling  those  who  chance  to  be  their 
opponents,  and  without  extravagant  boasting  as  to 
their  own  deserts.  Among  other  things  we  can  well 
afford  to  understand  our  own  mistakes  and  weak- 
nesses, and  to  accept  with  fair-mindedness  and  hon- 
esty some  of  the  superior  excellences  and  institutions 
of  other  countries,  as  of  France,  or  England,  or 


THE  AIM   OF  HISTORY  INSTRUCTION  9 

Germany.  A  course  of  study  in  history  must  neces- 
sarily include  much  historical  material  from  other 
countries,  and  many  noble  characters  not  American. 
We  have  no  end  of  instructive  lessons  to  learn  from 
Europe.  True  liberality  and  the  broad  mental  bal- 
ance and  charity  which  go  with  it  are  things  of  slow 
growth,  but  in  the  study  of  history  it  is  the  para- 
mount obligation  of  the  teacher  to  cultivate  these 
dispositions  both  in  himself  and  in  the  children. 

Following  a  great  trend  of  educational  thought  in 
recent  years,  we  may  say  that  it  is  the  aim  of  history- 
instruction  to  socialize  a  child,  that  is,  to  make  him 
more  regardful  of  the  interests  of  others,  less  stub- 
born and  isolated  in  his  individuality,  that  is,  less 
selfish.  Without  arguing  the  point  we  may  suggest 
the  sources  from  which  this  spirit  naturally  springs. 
The  study  of  biography  is  social  in  its  effect  because 
it  takes  the  child  out  of  himself  and  lose^him  in  the 
life  and  experiences  of  another.  The  more  biogra- 
phies of  the  right  sort  a  child  studies  appreciatively, 
the  more  his  own  life  is  expanded  to  encompass  and 
identify  itself  with  the  lives  of  others.  As  a  general 
thing  those  lives  are  most  worth  studying  which  are 
social  in  their  disposition,  close  and  strong  and  mani- 
fold in  their  social  relations.  Great  men  are  usually 
representative  men,  that  is,  they  embody  within  them- 
selves the  sentiments  and  needs  of  whole  parties  or 
classes  or  nations,  in  short,  are  almost  purely  social 
products.  To  understand  them  is  to  understand  the 


10  SPECIAL   METHOD   IN    HISTORY 

interests  of  the  social  classes  which  they  represent 
The  social  instinct  in  children  is  also  deepened  by  a 
study  of  the  political  and  religious  ideas  upon  which 
the  welfare  of  millions  of  people  may  depend.  The 
fugitive  slave  law,  for  example,  roused  the  indigna- 
tion of  people  because  it  threatened  the  welfare  of 
whole  masses  of  people,  both  white  and  black.  The 
recent  coal  strike  in  the  anthracite  regions  has 
aroused  the  interest  of  the  nation  in  the  welfare  of 
many  thousands  of  people.  Not  merely  that  the 
coal  strike  has  directly  affected  so  many  people,  but 
it  has  raised  the  great  question  of  justice,  on  a  large 
scale,  between  man  and  man.  The  conflict  between 
Charles  I  and  the  Long  Parliament  interests  us 
deeply  because  it  was  a  struggle  for  the  rights  of  the 
Commons  against  the  arbitrary  tyranny  of  a  single 
man.  It  was  simply  a  social  problem.  Industrial 
or  political  questions  which  involve  the  needs  and 
comforts  of  whole  classes  of  people  are  the  nurseries 
of  social  sentiment. 

It  has  been  often  observed  that  history  is  a  moral 
study.  It  deals  with  the  subject-matter  which  illus- 
trates moral  ideas  and  obligations.  It  teaches  morals 
concretely  both  in  individuals  and  in  communities  or 
states.  But  moral  ideas  always  express  the  higher 
social  relations  between  man  and  man.  History, 
therefore,  is  preeminently  a  social  and  moral  study. 
Froude,  in  his  essay  on  history,  says:  "And  it  is 
precisely  in  this  debatable  ground  of  low  motives 


THE  AIM  OF  HISTORY   INSTRUCTION  u 

and  noble  emotions ;  in  the  struggle,  ever  failing  yet 
ever  renewed,  to  carry  truth  and  justice  into  the 
administration  of  human  society ;  in  the  establish- 
ment of  states  and  in  the  overthrow  of  tyrannies ;  in 
the  rise  and  fall  of  creeds;  in  the  world  of  ideas; 
in  the  character  and  deeds  of  the  great  actors  in  the 
drama  of  life,  where  good  and  evil  fight  out  their 
everlasting  battle,  now  ranged  in  opposite  camps, 
now  and  more  often  in  the  heart,  both  of  them  of 
each  living  man,  —  that  the  true  human  interest  of 
history  resides."  And  again  :  "  First,  it  is  a  voice 
forever  sounding  across  the  centuries  the  laws  of 
right  and  wrong.  Opinions  alter,  manners  change, 
creeds  rise  and  fall,  but  the  moral  law  is  written  on 
the  tablets  of  eternity.  For  every  false  word  or 
\  unrighteous  deed,  for  cruelty  and  oppression,  for  lust 
or  vanity,  the  price  has  to  be  paid  at  last ;  not  always 
by  the  chief  offenders,  but  paid  by  some  one.  Jus- 
tice and  truth  alone  endure  and  live.  Injustice  and 
falsehood  may  be  long-lived,  but  doomsday  comes  at 
last  to  them,  in  French  revolutions  and  other  terrible 
ways." 

It  is  the  business  of  the  teacher  to  use  every  device 
by  which  these  social  ideas  and  relations  may  be 
intensified  in  the  study  of  history.  It  is  a  matter 
both  of  intelligent  insight  and  of  sympathetic  feeling. 
For  this  reason  history  should  never  be  studied  in  a 
dry,  matter-of-fact,  formal  way.  The  people  of  history 
should  live  before  the  thought  of  the  child  as  vividly 


12 

as  the  hero  of  a  tale.  The  imagination  must  recon- 
struct the  pictures  of  the  past  vividly.  The  persons 
studied  must  be  observed  with  heartfelt  interest, 
otherwise  the  social  instinct  receives  no  social  stimu- 
lus. Quoting  Froude  again:  "The  address  of  history 
is  less  to  the  understanding  than  to  the  higher  emo- 
tions. We  learn  in  it  to  sympathize  with  what  is 
great  and  good ;  we  learn  to  hate  what  is  base.  In 
the  anomalies  of  fortune  we  feel  the  mystery  of  our 
mortal  existence;  and  in  the  companionship  of  the 
illustrious  natures  who  have  shaped  the  fortunes  of 
the  world,  we  escape  from  the  littlenesses  which  cling 
to  the  round  of  common  life,  and  our  minds  are  tuned 
in  a  higher  and  nobler  key." 

The  teacher  is  not  left  without  resources  when 
asked  to  teach  morals  through  history.  The  histori- 
cal materials  most  suitable  for  children  in  the  grades 
are  prolific  in  striking  examples  of  social  conduct  If 
these  illustrations  of  action  are  placed  clearly  before 
the  children  in  their  true  colors,  they  will  carry 
their  own  moral.  They  make  their  own  appeal  to  the 
child's  sympathy  and  moral  judgment. 

As  yet  but  little  systematic  and  well-planned  effort 
has  been  made  to  accumulate  and  arrange  these 
genuine  sources  of  moral  culture  in  living,  concrete 
form.  But  the  materials  are  now  at  hand  for  making 
out  such  a  course,  and  this  highest  aim  of  history 
instruction  may  be  realized  beyond  anything  which 
has  yet  been  attempted. 


THE  AIM   OF   HISTORY  INSTRUCTION  13 

Manual  training  and  constructive  work  along  lines 
suggested  by  history  have  been  brought  into  service. 
If  a  boy  constructs  a  wigwam,  dresses  like  an  Indian, 
and  makes  bows  and  arrows  to  shoot  with,  he  comes 
into  closer  sympathy  with  Indian  life.  If  a  child 
produces  a  miniature  log-house  and  its  surroundings, 
he  gets  closer  to  the  reality  of  pioneer  life.  By 
reproducing  houses  and  various  simple  products  of 
industrial  art,  a  child  not  only  finds  expression  for 
his  motor  activities  in  manual  effort,  but  he  comes 
into  a  closer  sympathy  and  understanding  of  the 
people  whose  fabrics  and  houses  he  attempts  to 
reproduce.  It  may  be  said  that  this  is  only  another 
way  of  repeating  in  the  child  the  experience  of  the 
past,  and  of  working  it  over  into  his  physical  and 
mental  organism.  Anything  in  the  way  of  drawings 
made  by  the  children,  constructions,  or  efforts  at 
weaving  and  industrial  production,  which  give  vent 
to  a  child's  motor  impulses,  as  touched  into  life  by 
a  good  story,  will  produce  a  more  pronounced  and 
lasting  effect.  This  is  at  least  one  important  illustra- 
tion of  the  increased  vitality  given  to  studies  by  the 
exercise  of  constructive  activities. 

To  what  extent  the  course  of  study  in  history 
should  incorporate  into  itself  the  primitive  industries, 
and  give  play  in  the  shop  to  the  manual  and  con- 
structive activities  which  are  involved  in  the  growth 
of  the  typical  industrial  arts  is  still  an  open  ques- 
tion. 


14  SPECIAL   METHOD   IN   HISTORY 

Some  educators  are  inclined  to  think  that  the  entire 
course  of  study  must  be  reorganized  on  this  basis, 
that  the  development  of  the  social  instincts  into  clear- 
ness and  force  depends  upon  direct  participation 
through  school  exercises  in  the  essential  modes  of 
industrial  life.  To  my  mind  this  question  involves 
the  course  of  study  in  geography  and  natural  science 
quite  as  much  as  that  in  history. 

Manual  training  or  constructive  work  seems  des- 
tined to  occupy  a  great  place  in  the  coming  curricu- 
lum of  the  common  school.  There  is  a  large  demand 
for  it  in  order  to  secure  effective  work  in  history, 
geography,  and  natural  science,  and  even,  perhaps,  in 
arithmetic  and  literature.  Its  vitalizing  power,  how- 
ever, I  think,  depends  upon  its  being  identified 
with  those  several  studies  as  an  essential  ingredient, 
not  upon  its  being  made  a  study  apart  from  the 
others. 

The  study  of  history  produces  a  kind  of  mental 
discipline  which  is  peculiar  to  historical  materials  as 
distinguished  from  the  exact  methods  of  natural 
science  and  especially  of  mathematics.  Historical 
studies,  properly  conducted,  lead  to  a  thoughtful 
weighing  of  arguments,  pro  and  con,  a  survey  of 
both  sides  of  a  question  so  as  to  reach  a  reasonable 
conclusion.  These  conclusions  are  not  exact  mathe- 
matical deductions.  They  are  rather  inferences  based 
upon  the  careful  weighing  of  probabilities.  Hinsdale, 
in  discussing  the  educational  value  of  history,  says  : 


THE  AIM   OF   HISTORY   INSTRUCTION  15 

"As  remarked  above,  historical  knowledge  is  moral 
knowledge.  Mathematical  studies  deal  with  certain  ;? 
data  and  their  method  is  demonstration.  They  start 
with  definitions  and  axioms  that  are  intuitively  per- 
ceived, and  proceed  by  necessary  inferences  to  inevi- 
table conclusions.  There  is  no  gathering  of  facts,  no 
balancing  of  opposite  arguments,  no  halting  or  hesita- 
tion. There  can  be  no  looking  at  the  other  side, 
because  there  is  no  other  side.  Uncertainty  is  an 
impossible  state  of  mind.  Very  different  are  the 
problems  of  practical  life,  springing  out  of  the  rela- 
tions of  human  beings.  Very  different  the  transac- 
tion of  human  business.  Here  we  accumulate  data, 
weigh  the  force  of  opposing  evidence,  reconcile  con- 
tradictory views,  and  at  last  reach  probable  con- 
clusions. No  merchant,  manufacturer,  or  ship-owner 
can  demonstrate  that  a  given  venture  will  be  success- 
ful. Generals  cannot  certainly  predict  the  issue  of 
battles  and  campaigns ;  if  they  could,  battles  would 
not  be  fought  or  campaigns  be  waged.  Politicians 
are  not  absolutely  sure  that  canvasses  and  elections 
will  turn  out  so  and  so.  And  so  it  is  with  the 
teacher,  the  preacher,  and  the  moralist."  In  accord- 
ance with  this  idea  the  problems  of  historical  instruc- 
tion are  the  means  by  which  a  certain  thoughtfulness 
and  judicial-mindedness  are  cultivated.  History,  even 
with  children,  becomes  a  training  of  the  judgment.  • 
For  the  practical  purposes  of  life  it  is  just  as  im- 
portant for  a  child  to  acquire  this  careful  habit  of 


16  SPECIAL  METHOD  IN  HISTORY 

reasoning  upon  probabilities  and  of  reaching  approxi- 
mately correct  results  as  that  he  should  be  trained  in 
exact  mathematical  reasoning. 

History  should  be  so  taught  that  it  may  contribute 
largely  to  the  better  understanding  of  many  topics  in 
literature,  geography,  and  natural  science.  Without 
the  background  and  general  setting  of  history  much 
of  the  best  literature  based  upon  history  cannot  be 
understood  and  appreciated.  One  needs  to  get  a 
framework  of  Scottish  history  and  geography  in 
order  to  understand  Scott's  "  Marmion,"  "  Lady  of 
the  Lake,"  and  "The  Lay  of  the  Last  Minstrel." 
Many  of  Webster's  great  speeches  can  only  be  un- 
derstood in  the  light  of  the  whole  previous  history  of 
the  country,  and  this  statement  may  be  made  also 
of  many  of  the  best  poems,  ballads,  novels,  orations, 
and  essays  in  our  English  literature.  History  sup- 
plies, therefore,  much  of  the  concrete  material  and 
the  broader  survey  of  historical  events  which  consti- 
tutes a  basis  for  understanding  some  of  the  best 
literature  of  the  world.  This  gives  us  really  an  or- 
ganic or  vital  relation  between  these  great  studies. 

In  summing  up  the  conclusions  of  this  chapter  in 
regard  to  the  aim  of  history  instruction  we  may  say 
that  it  should  be  so  taught  that  children  may  become 
thoroughly  and  intelligently  interested  in  individuals 
and  in  the  concerns  of  society.  It  is  a  still  better 
formulation  of  this  aim  to  say  that  children  shall  re- 
produce in  themselves  the  experiences  of  the  suitable 


THE  AIM  OF  HISTORY   INSTRUCTION  17 

educative  epochs  in  history.  A  still  stronger  empha- 
sis is  given  to  the  chief  aim  of  history  by  centring 
its  lessons  upon  the  effort  to  socialize  and  humanize 
the  children  by  an  intelligent  and  sympathetic  treat- 
ment of  the  moral  relations  of  men.  History  is  thus 
preeminently  a  moral  study  and  moral  practice.  To 
give  a  vivid  and  intense  realization  of  social  duties 
and  obligations  is  the  essence  of  the  best  history 
instruction. 

A  great  moral-social  aim  has  such  kingly  power 
that  it  draws  into  its  tributary  service  other  impor- 
tant aims  which  some  have  set  in  the  chief  place. 
Among  these  is  a  pure  and  liberal  patriotism,  intelli- 
gent and  fair-minded.  The  mental  powers  are  also 
exercised  in  a  mode  of  reasoning  peculiar  to  histori- 
cal materials  which  calls  for  a  well-balanced  judg- 
ment in  the  weighing  of  arguments,  and  in  estimating 
probabilities.  This  is  a  most  useful  form  of  reason- 
ing, constantly  needed  in  our  everyday  problems. 


CHAPTER  II 

THE   SELECTION    OF    HISTORICAL    MATERIALS   SUITABLE 
FOR   THE   COMMON    SCHOOL    GRADES 

To  select  the  best  historical  material  which  the 
world  can  furnish  to  children  in  the  common  school 
is  not  an  easy  task.  It  is  necessary  to  keep  in  mind 
both  the  children's  capacity  to  appropriate  histori- 
cal knowledge  and  the  character  of  those  historical 
materials  which  are  needed  to  interpret  modern  life. 
We  must  also  remember  the  chief  aim  to  socialize 
and  humanize  the  child  by  causing  him  to  experience 
the  best  epochs  of  historical  growth. 

We  may  first  draw  the  line  of  separation  between 
history  and  several  vp.ry  c.lf>sp1y  rp1^tp,4  studies  with 
which  it  is  frequently  confused.  Some  writers  are 
accustomed  to  include  the  mythologies  and  folklore 
commonly  taught  in  the  primary  grades  as  a  part  of 
history,  but  for  our  present  purpose  we  wish  to  dis- 
crimin^te  hisfory  from  the  myth  andJegeqd  and  to 
limit  it  chiefly  to  what  is  now  understood  as  authentic 
history  which  will  stand  the  tests  of  modern  methods 
of  verification. 

We  are  also  disposed  to  draw  a  sharp  line  between 

18 


THE  SELECTION  OF  HISTORICAL   MATERIALS        19 

history  and  literature,  such  literature,  for  example,  as 
the  Homeric  poems,  the  old  English  ballads,  the 
Arthurian  legends,  Virgil's  "  JEneid,"  the  story  of 
"  Siegfried,"  "  Marmion,"  and  many  other  historical 
poems  and  classics.  Historical  novels,  likewise,  even 
the  best  of  them,  are  not  included  in  the  term  "  his- 
tory "  as  we  are  now  using  it  in  connection  with  the 
school  course.  All  of  these  literary  materials  are 
wrought  into  the  school  course,  partly  in  the  oral  story 
work  of  the  primary  grades,  partly  in  the  regular  study 
of  reading  throughout  all  the  grades,  and  partly  in 
supplementary  readings  both  at  school  and  home. 
This  line  of  demarcation  between  history  and  litera- 
ture casts  no  discredit  upon  literature,  mythology,  and 
historical  fiction.  A  full  course  of  study  in  the  best 
literature  of  America  and  of  other  countries  should 
be  provided  in  the  common  school  curriculum,  and  is 
presupposed.  This  whole  subject  has  been  fully  dis- 
cussed in  the  "  Special  Method  in  Reading  of  Eng- 
lish Classics,"  and  in  the  "Special  Method  in 
Primary  Reading  and  Oral  Work  in  Stories,"  of  this 
series. 

History  proper  deals  with  materials  which  have 
historical  veracity,  which  are  based  upon  good  author- 
ities and  may  be  accepted  as  true.  The  teacher  of 
history  is  expected  to  assume  the  standpoint  of  the 
modern  scientific  historian,  at  least  so  far  as  the  use 
of  authentic  material  is  concerned.  Not  that  the 
teacher  himself  is  a  historian,  but  he  should  use 


20  SPECIAL   METHOD   IN   HISTORY 

materials  which  good  historians  have  pronounced 
trustworthy.  It  is  not  expected  that  the  teacher 
himself  will  become  a  technical  critic  or  that  he  will 
try  to  make  such  critics  of  the  children.  But  there 
are  certain  credulous,  one-sided  historical  books 
which  he  should  avoid.  Biographies  giving  undue 
praise  and  credit  to  historical  characters  should  be 
avoided.  Books  which  are  ultra-patriotic  in  their 
approval  of  all  things  American  are  not  healthful 
historical  books.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  not  ex- 
pected that  children  shall  be  trained  to  a  carping 
criticism  of  great  men,  or  that  they  should  exercise 
a  premature  wisdom  in  judging  the  leaders  in  history. 
What  is  needed  is,  rather,  a  solid  respect  for  histori- 
cal truth  and  a  disposition  to  know  the  facts  and  to 
learn  the  lessons  which  history  really  teaches. 

In  laying  out  a  course  of  study  in  American  and 
other  history  we  may  get  at  a  good  result  by  the 
negative  process  of  deciding  what  historical  materials 
should  be  excluded  from  our  school  course.  We  will 
attempt,  therefore,  to  fix  a  table  of  exclusions. 

1.  Anything    like    a    full    chronology,    either    of 
American  or  European  history,  is  out  of  the  ques- 
tion in  the  common  school.     This  sort  of  systematic 
chronology  has  been  in  vogue  in  our  schools  to  a 
considerable  extent,  but  it  is  rapidly  passing  away. 
For  children  it  is  certainly  necessary  that  only  a  few 
important  dates  be  learned. 

2.  A  brief  systematic  survey  of  the  history  of  the 


THE  SELECTION  OF  HISTORICAL  MATERIALS       21 

whole  world,  which  has  been  strongly  recommended 
by  some  teachers,  seems  to  have  very  little  real  basis 
in  the  needs  of  children  or  of  society.  Such  an  out- 
line, if  at  all  appropriate,  should  be  the  result  of 
historical  study  at  the  end  of  the  course,  rather  than 
a  preface  to  it.  It  is  inevitably  a  dull  piece  of  work 
and  cannot  be  defended  even  upon  the  ground  of 
pure  discipline,  the  belief  in  which  is  fast  giving  way 
to  a  more  rational  conviction. 

3.  The  genealogies  of  kings  and  royal  houses,  and 
the  endless  series  of  court  intrigues  which  once  con- 
stituted a  good  share  of  the  text-books  in  history,  are 
now  recognized  as  worse  than  valueless  to  children. 
Some    critics,    like    Herbert    Spencer,   have   almost 
totally  rejected  the  study  of  history  in  our  common 
schools  because  it  was  made  up  of  such  trash. 

4.  Many  large  periods  of  European  history  can  be 
esteemed  of  no  particular  value  to  children  up  to  the 
age  of  fourteen.     They  should  not  be  dragged  over 
the  whole  long  chain  of  events  as  a  prelude  to  the 
study  of  later  ages. 

5.  The    study    of    wars   and    military    campaigns 
should  be  cut  as  short  as  possible.     There  are,  in- 
deed, some  honorable  and  some  horrible  lessons  to 
be  learned  from  the  study  of  war,  and  the  impression 
of  its  destructive  and  devastating  character,  its  ruin- 
ous influence  upon  society,  should  be  made  as  plain 
as  possible.     Thus  far,  curiously,  in  the  history  work 
of   achools,  war   has  been   chiefly  glorified  and  its 


22  SPECIAL  METHOD   IN   HISTORY 

inhuman  and  distressing  phases  overlooked.  If 
taught  at  all,  the  truth  about  wars  ought  to  be 
told  and  its  brutalities,  as  well  as  its  heroisms,  ex- 
posed. This  can  be  done  by  an  occasional  detailed 
treatment  of  a  military  campaign  or  battle.  In  a 
Christian  nation  it  is  quite  admissible  to  bring  out 
the  selfish  and  unrighteous  causes  which  have  led 
to  war,  and  the  plundered  fields  and  towns,  and  the 
broken  and  mangled  families  which  are  the  sure 
and  incurable  results  of  war. 

6.  The  philosophy  of  history  is  not  a  thing  to  be 
taught  in  the  common  school,  and  this  applies  also 
to  some    of   those   generalizations   which   even   our 
text-books  commonly  supply.     It  is,  however,  of  little 
value  to  children  to  memorize  these  general  infer- 
ences.    They  presuppose  just  such  a  knowledge  of 
the  facts  as  the  children  should  be  engaged  in  ac- 
cumulating.     Both   teachers   and    text-books   easily 
drop  into  this  humdrum  method  of  summing  up  his- 
torical events.     The  pupils  get  little  out  of  it  except 
a  routine  drill  which  dulls  the  sensibilities. 

7.  Recent  and  contemporary  history  is    perhaps 
the  most  difficult  of  historical  studies,  and  for  this 
reason  have  little  appropriateness  to  children.     The 
history  of  a  hundred  years  ago  can  be  much  more 
easily  understood  by  children  than  the  current  events 
of   to-day.      It  takes  a  very  wise   and  experienced 
scholar  and  man  of  the  world  to  judge  correctly  any 
of  our   present   political    and    social    controversies 


THE  SELECTION  OF  HISTORICAL   MATERIALS       23 

We  may  say,  on  the  one  hand,  that  it  involves  the 
whole  purpose  of  the  course  in  history  to  bring  the 
child  to  a  point  where  he  can  get  an  intelligent  in- 
sight into  the  present  life  of  the  people,  but  on  the 
other  side  it  may  be  said  with  equal  truth  that  it  is  no 
part  of  the  business  of  children  to  solve  our  present 
problems.  It  is  the  province  of  the  course  of  study 
in  history  to  put  children  in  possession  of  those  facts 
of  our  historical  growth  which  will  bring  them  to  the 
threshold  of  the  present  with  an  intelligent  equip- 
ment for  these  modern  problems.  We  may  say,  there- 
fore, that  the  schools  can  spend  very  little  time  in 
discussing  our  present  political  and  social  problems. 

In  this  table  of  exclusions  we  have  named  a  num- 
ber of  things  which  are  of  little  value  in  our  historical 
course  because  they  are  not  educative  in  the  best 
sense.  Not  appropriate  to  the  thought  and  activity 
of  childhood. 

As  to  positive  demands,  our  course  of  study  calls 
for  the  selection  of  a  few  leading  biographies  and 
larger  topics  of  American  and  of  European  history. 
These  great  topics  should  be  appropriate  to  children, 
and  educative  in  the  sense  of  our  aim.  They  should 
be  topics  in  which  the  impulsive  life  of  the  children 
can  find  free  and  adequate  utterance.  They  should 
appeal  strongly  to  their  interest  and  understanding, 
and  enhance  social  spirit  and  intelligence. 

These   requirements   are   fulfilled   first   of   all  by      .  ^ 
biography,  but  biographies  are  of  many  sorts,  and 


24  SPECIAL  METHOD   IN   HISTORY 

the  great  majority  of  them  are  not  of  special  interest 
or  value  to  children.  Biographical  stories  of  the  true 
stamp  have  a  wonderful  attraction  for  boys  and  girls, 
and  even  for  men  and  women.  There  is  perhaps 
nothing  more  interesting  and  instructive  than  the 
strong  and  manly  effort  of  individuals  under  the 
stress  and  strain  of  life's  problems. 

There  are  also  certain  epochs  of  history  which 
have  a  marked  attractiveness  for  young  people.  For 
example,  the  age  of  chivalry  and  knight-errantry,  the 
age  of  maritime  exploration,  the  war  of  Greek  Inde- 
pendence against  the  Persians,  and  the  American 
Revolution.  As  children  grow  older  their  inter- 
ests change  and  centre  upon  more  complex  and 
difficult  historical  personages  and  events.  It  has 
been  one  of  the  chief  aims  of  educators  to  find  out 
the  series  of  epochs  in  the  world's  history  which  are 
most  interesting  and  instructive  to  children  in  their 
successive  stages  of  growth.  As  yet  there  seems  to 
be  no  general  agreement  upon  this  point,  and  there- 
fore our  courses  of  study  are  in  a  shifting  and  uncer- 
tain condition;  but  so  much,  at  least,  seems  to  be 
established,  that  a  few  important  epochs  well  treated 
in  a  descriptive  and  even  dramatic  fulness,  are  far 
better  than  a  systematic,  chronological  survey  of  the 
history  of  many  nations. 

There  are  also  important  topics  which  show  a  con- 

v7      tinuous    development,    working    out    step   by   step, 

through  many  years,  an  important  result.     For  ex- 


THE  SELECTION  OF  HISTORICAL   MATERIALS       25 

ample,  the  discovery,  exploration,  and  settlement  of 
America,  or  the  origin,  growth,  and  outcome  of  sla- 
very. It  is  an  interesting  and  worthy  study  to  trace 
out  one  of  these  topics  in  its  causal  sequence  of 
events.  Even  a  single  event,  like  the  adoption  of 
the  Constitution,  is  the  important  culmination  of  a 
long  and  complex  series  of  historical  causes  which 
it  is  one  of  the  great  lessons  of  history  to  trace  out. 
In  these  different  ways  important  topics  should  be 
selected  and  arranged  in  the  course  of  study  which 
will  give  a  full  and  adequate  exercise  of  the  mental 
powers  of  the  children,  awaken  their  spontaneous 
interest  to  a  vigorous  action,  and  help  them  to  appre- 
ciate the  chief  historical  influences. 

In  projecting  the  course  of  history  for  American 
children,  it  will  be  acknowledged  on  all  hands  that 
American  history  should  have  a  prominent  place. 
Thus  far,  in  our  common  schools,  it  has  practically 
occupied  nearly  the  whole  time  given  to  history. 
But  English  and  European  history  have  received 
some  attention,  and  are  getting  more  and  more  recog- 
nition as  a  part  of  our  school  course. 

It  is  well,  therefore,  to  inquire  definitely  into  the 
scope  and  educative  value  of  American  history.  It 
is  not  only  our  own,  but  it  is  extremely  rich  in  edu- 
cative elements. 

i.  It  exhibits  the  movement  of  political,  social, 
and  industrial  forces,  through  the  chief  stages,  from 
the  simplest  crude  arrangements  of  the  early  settle- 


26  SPECIAL  METHOD  IN    HISTORY 

mcnts  up  to  that  vast  system,  with  its  great  com- 
plexity of  institutions,  which  we  now  call  our  national 
life.  I  think  it  would  be  impossible  to  find  any 
other  nation  in  which  the  chief  stages  of  modern 
history  are  better  illustrated,  and  in  which  there  is 
less  backward  movement  or  halting  progress.  The 
growth  of  institutions  has  been  steady,  incessant, 
and  rapid.  To  trace  out  this  movement  in  our 
history  is  as  good  a  preparation  as  can  be  made 
for  the  understanding  of  our  present  political  and 
social  affairs.  Professor  Turner  says :  — 

"  Loria,  the  Italian  economist,  has  urged  the  study 
of  colonial  life  as  an  aid  in  understanding  the 
stages  of  European  development,  affirming  that 
colonial  settlement  is  for  economic  science  what  the 
mountain  is  for  geology,  bringing  to  light  primitive 
stratifications.  'America,'  he  says,  'has  the  key  to 
the  historical  enigma  which  Europe  has  sought  for 
centuries  in  vain,  and  the  land  which  has  no  history 
reveals  luminously  the  course  of  universal  history.' 
There  is  much  truth  in  this.  The  United  States 
lies  like  a  huge  page  in  the  history  of  society.  Line 
by  line,  as  we  read  this  continental  page  from  west 
to  east,  we  find  the  record  of  social  evolution.  It 
begins  with  the  Indian  and  the  hunter;  it  goes  on 
to  tell  of  the  disintegration  of  savagery  by  the 
entrance  of  the  trader,  the  pathfinder  of  civilization ; 
we  read  the  annals  of  the  pastoral  stage  in  ranch 
life;  the  exploitation  of  the  soil  by  the  raising  of 


THE  SELECTION   OF   HISTORICAL   MATERIALS       27 

unrotated  crops  of  corn  and  wheat  in  sparsely  settled 
farming  communities ;  the  intense  culture  of  the 
denser  farm  settlement ;  and  finally,  the  manufactur- 
ing organization  with  city  and  factory  system.  This 
page  is  familiar  to  the  student  of  census  statistics, 
but  how  little  of  it  has  been  used  by  our  historians. 
Particularly  in  eastern  states  this  page  is  a  palimpsest. 
What  is  now  a  manufacturing  state  was  in  an  earlier 
decade  an  area  of  intense  farming.  Earlier  yet  it 
had  been  a  wheat  area,  and  still  earlier  the  '  range ' 
had  attracted  the  cattle  herder.  Thus  Wisconsin, 
now  developing  manufacture,  is  a  state  with  varied 
agricultural  interests.  But  earlier  it  was  given  over 
to  almost  exclusive  grain-raising,  like  North  Dakota 
at  the  present  time." 

2.  At  every  stage  in  this  progress  our  country 
has  been  fortunate  in  the  character  of  its  leading 
men.  Looked  at  from  the  standpoint  of  the  educa- 
tion of  the  young,  what  can  be  more  fortunate  than 
that  we  should  have  among  those  persons  with  whose 
life  and  deeds  every  boy  and  girl  is  to  become  well 
acquainted,  such  men  as  John  Winthrop,  William 
Penn,  Columbus,  Roger  Williams,  Franklin,  Wash- 
ington, Samuel  Adams,  Marion,  Robert  Lee,  Cham- 
plain,  La  Salle,  and  many  others  who  were  persons 
of  very  unusual  force  and  excellence  of  character. 
It  can  hardly  be  called  boasting  to  say  that  no  other 
country  has,  in  its  early  history  (that  part  which 
children  most  study),  such  a  remarkable  and  superior 


28  SPECIAL  METHOD  IN   HISTORY 

body  of  representative  men.  When  the  persona\ 
history  of  these  people  is  once  properly  presented 
to  our  boys  and  girls,  its  social  and  moral  influence 
upon  the  character  of  the  youth  of  America  must 
be  incalculably  great. 

3.  This  history  is  complete,  authentic,  and  reliable, 
so  that  the  truth  can  be  told  without  disparagement 
to  its  culture  effect.      From  the  very  beginning  of 
our    history   the    main    facts    are   well    established. 
Tfiere  is  po,,dim  twilight  of  myth  and  legepd-  such 
as  is  peculiar  to  the  history  of  every  European  state. 
We  know  the   essential  truth  about  the   men   and 
women    who    settled    the    thirteen    colonies ;    what 
hardships  and  dangers  they  met,  and  what  sort  of 
character   they   exhibited.      All    this   is    thoroughly 
interesting  and   instructive   to   children,  even   more 
so,  perhaps,  than  the  heroes  and  exploits  of  mythical 
antiquity. 

4.  The   story   of^  our  earlier   national    history  in 
colonia.1  times  is  full  of^  those  simpler,  ruder  forms 
of    inohistrial    Ufe   which    furnish    suitable   working 
problems  for  the  children  in   manual   construction. 
The  tendency  of  children  to  reproduce  the   condi- 
tions  and   surroundings   of   those   whose   lives    and 
adventures  are  thoroughly  interesting  is  well  known. 
The  early  pioneers  in  America  were   builders  and 
wgrker^s.  hunters  and  fighters,  men  who  knew  how 
to  make  and  use  the  sp^de.  the  ajg,  the  oar,  and 
fishing  tackle,   the   spindle   and   the   loom.      Their 


THE  SELECTION  OF  HISTORICAL   MATERIALS       29 

first  constructions  were  of  the  rudest  and  simplest 
character.  Log-houses,  breastworks,  forts,  and  pali- 
sades were  among  their  first  necessities.  They 
were  compelled  to  build  up  everything  from  the 
simplest  beginnings  in  a  land  where  absolutely  none 
of  the  conveniences  and  products  of  civilization 
were  to  be  found.  They  not  only  built  their  own 
houses  and  made  their  own  furniture  and 


they  also  prepared  their  own  clothing  from  furs 
and  hides,  or  from  coarse  cloth  which  they  had 
spun  and  woven.  From  the  forests  they  cut  down 
the  trees,  from  which  to  construct  homes  and  forts, 
boats  and  ships.  They  cleared  the  ground  and 
raised  their  own  crops.  They  went  out  in  fishing 
smacks  and  soon  became  bold  and  hardy  fishermen 
along  the  coast  of  New  England,  or  equally  bold 
and  fearless  Indian  fighters,  or  emigrants  into  the 
region  farther  west.  The  clothing,  tools,  implements, 
and  weapons  which  they  employed,  the  axes,  levers, 
wedges,  guns,  and  cooking  utensils,  boats,  and  tackle. 
were  such  as  boys  love  to  bring  together  for  their 
hunting  and  outing  trips.  The  necessities  of  the 
home  and  of  the  family  caused  them  not  only  to 
make  clothing,  but  also  to  produce  salt  and  sugar, 
to  put  up  meats  and  fruits,  to  raise  vegetables, 
poultry,  and  domestic  animals,  and  to  supply  them- 
selves thus  with  all  the  means  of  food,  shelter,  and 
clothing  which  their  ingenuity  could  devise.  With 
their  own  hands,  little  by  little,  they  actually 


3O  SPECIAL   METHOD   IN   HISTORY 

produced  all  the  material  objects  of  a  civilized 
society. 

The  Indian  life  furnishes  additional  construction 
for  boys  and  girls.  Manual  employments,  suggested 
and  stimulated  by  interest  in  these  history  stories, 
are  undoubtedly  a  strong  means  of  converting  his- 
tory into  personal  experience,  and  of  causing  the  boy 
to  realize,  in  the  fullest  degree,  the  historical  events 
in  which  he  is  absorbed. 

For  these  and  other  reasons,  we  are  disposed  to 
grant  an  unusual  importance  to  early  American  his- 
tory, and  to  give  it  a  large  place  in  the  school  work. 
In  fact  it  may  well  serve  as  the  backbone  of  this 
part  of  the  course  of  study  in  history.  Such  parts  of 
European  history  as  contribute  to  a  better  under- 
standing of  American  history  or  deal  with  equally 
important  or  kindred  epochs  in  the  life  of  nations 
will  be  brought  into  proper  relation  to  the  similar 
subjects  in  this  primary  course  in  American  history. 

The  Selected  Parts  of  European  History 

In  the  vast  array  of  important  historical  material 
furnished  by  the  history  of  Europe,  it  is  plain  that 
only  a  few  striking  and  prominent  incidents  can  be 
incorporated  into  the  graded  school  curriculum. 
First,  because  much  of  that  history  is  beyond  the 
comprehension  of  children,  and  second,  because  the 
time  possible  for  historical  instruction  is  very  limited. 


THE   SELECTION   OF   HISTORICAL   MATERIALS       31 

It  would  be  a  sad  mistake  to  overload  the  children 
with  a  mass  of  memorized  detail,  or  to  distress  them 
with  a  schematic  outline  of  the  whole. 

There  are  certain  epochs  in  European  history,  like 
the  coming  of  the  Angles  and  Saxons  to  England, 
the  Norman  Conquest,  the  Reformation,  and  the 
Puritan  Revolution,  that  have  a  world-significance. 
They  are  like  mountain  peaks  which  tower  aloft  and 
show  the  trend  of  great  mountain  chains.  There  are 
also  certain  lofty  characters,  like  Alfred  the  Great, 
Caesar,  Charlemagne,  Luther,  Alexander,  Isabella, 
Cromwell,  and  Napoleon,  who  have  taught  the  world 
such  commanding  lessons  that  every  child  should 
have  a  chance  to  grasp  in  a  few  points  the  signifi- 
cance of  their  lives.  These  great  events  and  per- 
sonages belong  to  the  supreme  thought  and  experience 
of  the  race,  and  children  should  carry  with  them  from 
school  a  distinct  remembrance  of  such  characters. 
In  making  the  selection  of  these  few  conspicuous 
topics  we  must  always  regard  the  age  and  capacity 
of  the  children,  and  the  real  educative  or  culture 
value  of  the  material  selected. 

It  is  evident  that  biography  must  here  also  have 
the  lead.  A  few  individuals  of  striking  and  convinc- 
ing personality  must  be  selected.  Hannibal  in  the 
Punic  wars,  Caesar  in  his  conquest  of  Gaul  and  Eng- 
land, John  Hampden  in  the  contest  with  Charles  I, 
Bismarck  in  the  Unification  of  Germany,  sum  up  in 
their  personalities  the  most  important  political  ideas 


32  SPECIAL  METHOD   IN   HISTORY 

and  events.  In  intermediate  grades  the  hero  tales 
of  Regulus,  Alfred  the  Great,  Richard  I,  Robert 
Bruce,  and  Leonidas  may  be  employed. 

Again,  many  of  the  topics  in  earlier  American 
history  have  their  other  half  in  Europe,  and  the 
immediate  events  in  Europe  demand  a  clear  presen- 
tation. The  stories  of  Raleigh,  of  Penn,  of  Columbus, 
of  Magellan,  of  La  Salle,  and  of  all  the  colonial  set- 
tlements have  their  preliminary  basis  of  action  in 
Europe,  and  the  preceding  events  in  England  or 
Spain  or  France  need  a  clear  statement.  Even  the 
lives  of  Franklin,  of  John  Paul  Jones,  and  of  other 
Revolutionary  leaders  are  largely  European  in  their 
surroundings  and  influences. 

There  are  also  European  topics  which  are  but  en- 
larged treatments  of  American  topics.  The  English 
Revolution  and  the  Commonwealth,  the  Reformation, 
and  the  Colonization  of  America  as  viewed  from 
Europe  are  enlargements  of  the  points  of  view  which 
we  gain  from  the  study  of  similar  and  closely  related 
events  in  America.  As  will  be  later  seen,  many 
American  subjects  can  be  far  better  understood  in 
England  or  France  after  kindred  events  have  been 
studied  on  a  smaller  scale  in  American  history.  This 
close  causal  connection  between  events  on  the  two 
shores  of  the  Atlantic  needs  to  be  clearly  traced  out 
in  order  to  get  a  true  understanding  of  the  importance 
and  meaning  of  each. 

It   seems   clear   that   children,  by  the  time  they 


THE   SELECTION   OF   HISTORICAL   MATERIALS       33 

leave  the  common  school,  should  have  at  least 
gained  not  only  a  bird's-eye  view  of  the  large  and 
far-reaching  events  in  European  history,  but  also 
considerable  insight  into  a  few  striking  character- 
istics of  each  of  the  leading  nations,  as  of  the 
Romans,  the  Germans,  the  Spaniards,  the  French, 
and  the  English.  When  did  these  nations  stand  out 
most  prominently  in  the  world's  work  ?  Are  they 
still  progressive  or  have  they  dropped  behind  in  the 
world's  march  ?  A  few  of  these  conspicuous  persons 
and  peoples  may  be  treated  with  sufficient  detail  to 
arouse  a  real  interest  and  to  produce  intelligent 
insight  into  their  character. 


CHAPTER   III 

HISTORY  STORIES  USED  IN   FOURTH  AND  FIFTH   GRADES 

WE  assume  that  American  history  will  furnish  us 
the  chief  materials  for  our  course  of  study  in  history. 

In  the  three  primary  grades  we  plan  for  no  regu- 
lar historical  instruction.  The  use  of  a  few  simple 
history  stories  in  primary  grades  at  Thanksgiving 
and  Christmas  time,  and  on  national  celebrations, 
may  serve  as  a  prelude  to  the  steady  and  purposeful 
studies  which  begin  in  the  fourth  grade.  In  the 
third  grade  also  it  may  be  well  to  discuss  the  family 
and  neighborhood  traditions,  and  the  stories  of  a  few 
of  the  early  settlers  in  the  home  district. 

The  regular  course  in  American  history  may  be- 
gin in  the  fourth  grade  with  a.  number  of  choice 
pioneer^Jiistory  stories  of  the  United  States.  In 
selecting  and  arranging  these  stories  we  are  con- 
trolled by  two  considerations.  First,  that  they  be 
taken  from  the  simple,  primitive  period  of  early  dis- 
covery and  settlement,  and  not  from  the  complex 
surroundings  of  a  more  advanced  stage  of  society. 
Second,  that  the  best  early  stories  of  the  home  state 
should  be  studied  first,  and  that  the  movement  be 

34 


HISTORY  IN   FOURTH  AND   FIFTH   GRADES          35 

gradually  outward  toward  the  neighboring  states  and 
to  the  whole  of  North  America  and  the  world.  For 
example,  in  the  Mississippi  Valley  states  the  pioneer 
stories  of  that  region  should  be  the  first  history  les- 
sons for  children,  and  later,  the  stories  of  the  eastern 
and  far  western  states.  In  New  York  state  the 
stories  of  Hudson  and  Champlain  would  naturally 
come  first,  while  in  Virginia,  Raleigh  and  Smith 
would  have  the  preference.  The  order  in  which  the 
stories  are  taken  up  will  thus  vary  in  different  parts 
of  the  United  States.  Two  chief  reasons  may  be  as- 
signed for  this.  First,  the  character  of  pioneer  ex- 
ploration and  discovery  is  essentially  the  same  in  all 
parts  of  the  United  States.  It  has  everywhere  the 
same  simplicity  and  the  same  difficulties  and  dangers 
to  meet.  Second,  the  chronology  of  pioneer  events 
has  at  first  little  importance  for  children.  The  great 
thing  is  to  produce  strong  impressions  by  a  complete, 
animated,  realistic  portraiture  of  a  few  leading  char- 
acters and  the  events  in  which  they  figured. 

In  nearly  all  cases  the  more  difficult  stories  of 
Columbus,  Magellan,  Cortes,  and  Drake  may  be 
handled  to  better  advantage  in  the  fifth  grade.  Two 
years  (fourth  and  fifth)  are  thus  given  to  the  pioneer 
period  of  American  history  dealing  with  the  life  ex- 
periences of  explorers  and  the  very  earliest  settlers. 

As  indicated  in  the  course  of  study,  a  number  of 
English  and  European  history  stories  should  be 
handled  in_these  same  grades.  They  spring  from 


36  SPECIAL  METHOD   IN   HISTORY 

the  earliest  historical  epochs,  and  have  primitive  sur- 
roundings which  children  may  understand.  They 
fit  in  well  with  the  American  stories. 

It  is  our  opinion  that  in  teaching  all  the.se  stories, 
both  American  and  European,  the  geographical  back- 
ground should  be  kept  clearly  in  mind.  Wall-maps, 
globes,  and  blackboard  sketches  should  be  used  in 
every  story  to  make  clear  the  simple  geographical 
surroundings  in  which  the  action  takes  place.  One 
reason  why  the  stories  of  Columbus  and  Magellan 
are  more  difficult  than  those  of  Boone  and  Cham- 
plain  is  that  the  former  requires  a  knowledge  of  the 
whole  earth  and  of  the  maps  then  used,  and  of  the 
vague  ideas  then  prevalent  on  geography. 

Our  first  American  history  belongsto_the_  heroic 
age.  It  was  the  blossoming  time  for  deeds  of  indi- 
vidual heroism.  But  it  is  practical  and  real.  The 
old  heroes  of  mythical  times  had  to  do  with  mon- 
sters and  demigods,  or  with  the  huge  forces  of  na- 
ture in  uncouth  personifications,  as  Polyphemus, 
Scylla,  and  Charybdis.  The  heroes  of  this  new  world 
had  more  real  and  tangible  hardships.  Mountains, 
forests,  rivers,  stormy  oceans,  wild  beasts,  and  In- 
dians, and  other  untold  hardships  and  distresses  of 
people  far  from  their  sources  of  supply.  The  early 
explorers  and  settlers  of  our  land  first  discovered  and 
opened  up  its  stretches  of  forest,  mountain,  and 
desert ;  then  struggled  manfully  against  savage  diffi- 
culties to  gain  possession  of  its  soil,  and  finally 


HISTORY   IN    FOURTH    AND    FIFTH   GRADES  37 

labored  slowly  and  painfully  to  build  houses,  roads, 
villages,  and  all  the  later  institutions  of  culture.  It 
can  hardly  be  said  that  the  earliest  of  these  history 
stories  can  be  used  to  advantage  before  the  fourth 
grade,  but  for  children  of  this  grade  they  are  well 
adapted. 

It  is  not  uncommon  to  find  history  stories  in  use 
in  the  first  and  second  grades,  and  some  even  of  our 
kindergartners  employ  the  story  of  Columbus  and  of 
Washington  and  of  others  with  still  younger  chil- 
dren. They  claim  also  that  much  interest  is  awak- 
ened by  such  stories.  We  believe  that  children  of 
the  first  and  second  grades  are  not  mature  enough 
to  grasp  these  historical  narratives  in  their  geographi- 
cal setting.  We  wish  to  use  the  stories  at  that  point 
where  they  will  produce  their  full  educative  effect. 
Nor  do  we  believe  that  a  story  should  be  repeated 
from  year  to  year  in  successive  grades.  Let  the 
story,  with  its  full  accompaniment  of  local  and  geo- 
graphical environment,  be  told  by  the  teacher  and 
reproduced  by  the  children  at  that  time  when  they 
are  able  to  understand  it  clearly  and  receive  a  strong 
and  permanent  impression.  We  have  tested  these 
pioneer  histories  from  time  to  time  upon  children  of 
the  third  and  fourth  grades,  and  have  reached  the  con- 
clusion that  third  grade  pupils  are  not  quite  equal  to 
a  satisfactory  grasp  of  them.  An  exception  to  this 
rule  has  been  noted  in  the  use  of  a  few  stories  in  con- 
nection with  Thanksgiving  and  other  holidays. 


38  SPECIAL  METHOD  IN   HISTORY 

The  following  discussion  will  make  plain  the  quali- 
tative elements  in  these  stories  that  fit  them  for  use 
in  the  fourth  and  fifth  grades  rather  than  at  other 
periods  of  the  school  course. 

The  pioneer  stories  constitute  the  first  stages  of  an 
unbroken  series  of  history  studies,  beginning  in  the 
fourth  grade  and  extending  beyond  the  limits  of  the 
common  school.  Taking  up  first  the  best  early  biog- 
raphies of  the  home  state,  we  advance  to  adjacent 
parts  of  the  country,  north,  south,  east,  and  west, 
until  the  main  lines  of  pioneer  life  and  its  leading 
characters  in  the  earlier  history  of  the  United  States 
have  been  treated. 

Children  should  begin  history  as  soon  as  they  take 
a  strong  and  intelligent  interest  in  its  simpler  phases. 
Till  of  late,  American  history  was  not  taught  below 
the  grammar  grades.  But  now  there  is  a  strong  ten- 
dency to  use  biographical  stories  in  intermediate 
grades.  This,  we  believe,  is  a  correct  instinct. 
Some  of  the  chief  lessons  of  history  can  be  better 
taught  in  the  intermediate  grades  than  anywhere  else. 
The  educative  effect  of  heroic  stories  seems  deeper 
at  this  point  than  at  any  other  time  of  child  life. 
There  appears  to  be  a  peculiar  fitness  of  early  history 
stories  to  children's  minds  at  the  age  of  ten  or  eleven. 

What  portion  of  our  history  is  best  suited  to  begin- 
ners ?  We  think  that  simpje,  thrilling  biographies  oi 
early  pioneer  life  are  best  calculated  to  awaken  the 
interest  of  younger  children.  They  are  plain  and 


HISTORY   IN   FOURTH  AND  FIFTH   GRADES         39 

primitive,  and  withal  so  energetic  and  spirited  that 
they  correspond  to  a  child's  physical  and  mental 
moods.  Their  heroism  brings  out  those  marks  of 
prowess  and  courage,  which  children  so  much  admire. 
They  are,  in  the  main,  free  from  the  complexities  and 
entanglements  of  great  wars,  and  of  later  political  and 
social  institutions.  The  elements  of  personal  char- 
acter find  for  children  a  clear  and  full  expression,  and 
the  simple  experiences  of  pioneer  struggle  and  danger 
make  an  indelible  mark  upon  them. 

In  order  to  secure  stories  which  are  adapted  to 
children  of  this  age,  r.grtjjn  limits  in  tbejr  sgl^rtjon 
must  be  observed.  First,  they  should  be  biographi-  i 
cal  stories,  to  secure  simplicity  and  interest,  and  they 
should  exhibit  the  lives  of  men  of  high  character  and 
purpose,  such  as  impress  the  mind  with  generous 
thoughts.  Secondly,  the  conditions  of  society  should 
be  simple  and  primitive,  easily  surveyed  and  compre- 
hended. This  condition  excludes  stories  from  the 
period  of  the  Revolution  and  of  the  Civil  War,  unless 
they  lie  apart  from  the  main  struggle,  and  have  a  dis- 
tinct pioneer  character  of  their  own.  Not  that 
stories  taken  from  the  midst  of  the  Revolution  or  of 
the  Civil  War  are  less  interesting  and  valuable,  but 
they  should  come  later  to  illustrate  the  spirit  and 
temper  of  those  times.  The  whole  situation  of  a 
story,  its  geography,  and  historical  setting,  should  be 
made  transparent  to  the  minds  of  children,  and  it  is 
impossible  for  them  to  understand  the  complex  move- 


40  SPECIAL  METHOD   IN   HISTORY 

ments  of  armies  in  a  great  national  struggle,  much 
less  the  state  of  government,  legislation,  and  finance 
inseparably  connected  therewith. 

In  the  main,  therefore,  tfrese  stor'^g  mng»  fo»  C)f»- 
lected  from  the  narrow  field  of  exploration  and  first 
settlement,  before  society  had  assumed  complex  forms, 
while  commerce,  manner  of  living,  and  government 
were  still  in  their  simplest  beginnings.  In  any  given 
part  of  the  country,  as  in  Massachusetts  or  California, 
the  period  of  exploration  and  pioneer  life  was  brief, 
but  in  the  history  of  the  United  States,  and  of  North 
America  as  a  whole,  it  has  lasted  from  the  time  of 
Columbus  down  almost  to  the  present.  In  all  its 
stages  it  has  been  a  period  of  hardship  and  danger, 
calling  out  the  most  adventurous  spirits  and  putting 
men  of  large  physical  and  moral  calibre  under  the 
necessity  of  exhibiting,  in  bold  relief,  their  individual 
traits.  Such  men  were  La  Salle,  Boone,  Penn, 
Clark,  and  Lincoln. 

No  other  country  has  had  such  a  pioneer  history, 
such  a  race  of  men  as  the  early  Friends,  the  Virgin- 
ians,  the  Puritans,  the  French,  the  Scotch-Irish,  push- 
ing westward  to  subdue  and  civilize  a  continent. 
The  early_history  of  England,  Germany^,  or__Italy 

The  Spanish 


explorers  and  conquerors  of  the  New  World  teach  us 
mostly  lessons  of  cruelty,  rapine,  and  inordinate  love 
of  gold.  They  serve  as  warning  rather  than  as  ex- 
ample. But  the  best  nations  of  Europe  were  sifted 


HISTORY  IN   FOURTH  AND   FIFTH  GRADES         41 

by  persecution  in  order  to  find  seed  fit  for  the  plant- 
ing of  those  colonies,  from  which  the  United  States 
derive  their  traditions.  There  is  scarcely  one  of  our 
states  whose  early  history  is  not  connected  with  the 
stirring  deeds  of  one  or  more  of  these  noted  pioneers. 
No  matter  in  what  part  of  the  country  a  child  may  be 
born  and  reared,  he  may  meet  the  best  spirit  of  our 
history  in  the  early  biographies  of  his  own  state. 

Fortunate  is  that  land  whose  early  history  is  so  full 
of  profitable  lessons,  for  there  is  no  part  of  its  annals 
that  is  destined  to  have  such  a  telling  influence  upon 
its  growing  children.  If  the  Romans,  by  studying 
their  ancestral  and  traditional  history,  could  train 
up  such  men  as  Cincinnatus,  Regulus,  and  the  Scipios, 
how  much  more  valuable  to  our  children  are  the 
strong  and  sinewy  examples  of  Washington,  Robert- 
son, Champlain,  and  Fremont.  For  moral-educative 
purposes,  there  is  no  history  so  valuable  as  the  biog- 
raphies of  our  sturdy  pioneers. 

We  believe  that  this  pioneer  epoch  is  the  delightful 
gateway  through  which  the  children  of  our  common 
schools  are  to  find  entrance  to  the  fields  of  American 
history.  These  stories  not  only  interest,  instruct,  and 
strengthen  the  moral  fibre  of  children,  but  they  are 
an  excellent  vantage-ground  from  which  to  advance 
into  history,  geography,  and  natural  science. 

As  representative  men,  the  pioneers  settled  some 
important  disputes  and  laid  the  groundwork  for 
later  growth.  They  gave  unmistakable  proof  of 


42  SPECIAL  METHOD   IN  HISTORY 

the  quality  and  the  strength  of  the  materials  that 
went  into  the  first  framework  of  our  western  states. 
There  is  scarcely  a  better  way  to  begin  history  than 
with  the  simple  rudiments  from  which  our  later  social 
and  political  fabric  has  grown,  especially  when  spirited, 
heroic  biography  is  the  medium  through  which  these 
elements  are  brought  home  to  the  hearts  and  sympa- 
thies of  children. 

In  departing  so  widely  from  usage  as  to  make 
instruction  in  historical  topics  a  regular  part  of  the 
school  work  from  the  fourth  grade  on,  we  assume  the 
value  of  historical  studies  as  discussed  in  Chapter  I 
on  "  The  Aim  of  History  Instruction,"  and  in  Chap- 
ter II  of  "  General  Method."  But  we  now  feel  called 
upon  to  justify  still  further  and  to  emphasize  by  repe- 
tition this  choice  of  materials  from  our  own  history 
for  fourth  and  fifth  grades. 

In  the  first  case,  does  this  part  of  our  history  fur- 
nish materials  that  are  adapted  to  the  understanding 
and  interest  of  children  of  this  grade?  In  accord- 
ance with  our  previous  discussion,  heroic  biography 
occupies  the  favored  place  in  the  hearts  of  children 
of  this  age.  It  is  not  the  lives  of  orators,  scientists, 
or  even  of  statesmen,  but  of  simple  heroes,  of  men 
who  have  shown  power  and  skill  and  goodness  in  an 
age  when  men  battled  single-handed  or  in  small  num- 
bers against  surrounding  dangers. 

So  far  as  the  schools  are  concerned,  the  fact  has 
been  too  much  overlooked  that  we  have  in  our  own 


HISTORY   IN   FOURTH   AND   FIFTH   GRADES         43 

history  an  heroic  epoch  of  surprising  interest.  A 
collection  of  the  best  pioneer  biographies  of  our 
country,  as  shown  above,  is  rich  in  stirring  events,  in 
deeds  of  fortitude  and  nobility  which  are  destined  to 
thrill  the  children  with  their  high  worth.  Many  of 
the  best  episodes  of  our  history  are  as  yet  entirely 
unknown  to  our  children ;  for  example,  the  watchful- 
ness and  resource  of  Robertson  during  the  Indian 
troubles  about  Nashville,  and  the  boldness  and 
energy  of  George  Rogers  Clark  at  Kaskaskia  and 
Vincennes.  These  stories  fulfil  all  the  require- 
ments of  an  exacting  criticism  even  when  put  to 
the  test  of  class-room  work  with  children.  These 
stirring,  true  descriptions  of  strong  men  and  women, 
of  difficult  enterprises,  are  able  to  awaken  the  deep 
and  permanent  interest  of  children.  For  they  have 
the  ring  of  true  metal  in  them  that  will  pass  current 
with  all  men  in  all  ages.  Our  history,  which  is  so 
rich  in  inspiring  educative  materials,  has  consisted 
too  much,  heretofore,  in  the  study  of  skeleton  out- 
lines, in  a  memorizing  of  important  events  and  of 
chronological  tables.  This  has  often  tended  to  dull 
the  interest  in  history  or  even  to  create  a  distaste 
for  it.  There  is  no  reason  why  children  in  their 
earlier_vears  should^not  come^  in  contact^  not  with  a 
barren  statement  of  important  facts,  but  with  tlie 
personal  deeds  of  men  of  energy  and  virtue.  They 
see  these  men  in  action  and  are  strongly  stimulated 
by  their  spirit.  The  pioneer  stories  approach  our 


44  SPECIAL  METHOD   IN   HISTORY 

history  from  its  most  attractive  side,  presenting  im. 
posing  pictures.  They  not  only  interest  for  the 
time  being,  but  create  an  inclination  toward  the 
study  of  our  leading  men  and  of  important  events 
in  the  formative  period  of  our  history. 

History  stories  have  been  introduced  into  our 
schools  in  recent  years,  but  they  are  often  too 
brief  and  didactic.  A  good  story  should  claim  a 
child's  interest  from  its  own  inherent  merit.  By 
beginning  early  with  truthful  and  appropriate  biog- 
raphies, we  touch  the  heart  of  the  child.  In  the 
regular  teaching  of  history  the  tendency  has  been 
overwhelming  toward  a  condensed  and  abstract 
statement  of  the  great  events  of  our  national  life. 
There  has  been  much  faith  in  the  power  of  the 
mind  to  assimilate  the  generalizations  boiled  down 
into  our  brief  compendiums  of  history.  Even  the 
children's  histories,  in  biographical  form,  have 
been  more  anxious  to  load  up  with  important  facts 
than  to  tell  a  good  story.  We  have  much  to  learn 
in  teaching  history  to  children.  It  is  no  more  true 
here  than  in  natural  science  that  the  mind  can 
dispense  with  concrete,  interesting  facts,  the  details 
from  which  general  statements  may  be  later  in- 
ferred. By  taking  history  in  its  simple  but  strong 
characters  we  shall  gather  the  best  materials  and 
insure  a  strong  interest.  Andrew  D.  White,  speak- 
ing of  the  teaching  of  history  at  Cornell  Univer- 
sity, says :  "  In  general  modern  history  and  in 


HISTORY   IN   FOURTH   AND   FIFTH   GRADES         45 

American  history,  while  pains  is  taken  to  present 
the  framework  and  connections  historically,  the 
filling-in  is  largely  biographical.  It  is  believed 
that  history  is  thus  more  surely  made  living  and 
real,  that  the  development  of  principles  and  events 
is  more  firmly  planted  into  the  thinking  of  students, 
and  that  the  ethical  content  of  events  may  be 
grasped  as  it  can  be  in  no  other  way."  Professor 
C.  K.  Adams  says  of  the  history  course  in  the 
German  gymnasia :  "  The  course  is  almost  exclu- 
sively biographical.  Indeed,  it  is  little  more  than 
a  succession  of  stories  told  with  the  especial  aim 
of  making  a  deep  impression  upon  the  mind  of 
the  child  concerning  some  of  the  most  important 
of  the  great  characters  of  history.  Such  a  course, 
continuing  for  two  years  at  the  rate  of  two  lessons 
a  week,  will  be  found  to  have  given  the  pupil  con- 
siderable knowledge  of  a  vast  number  of  valuable 
facts.  And,  best  of  all,  the  method  by  which  this 
information  has  been  acquired,  so  far  from  taxing 
the  strength  or  wearying  the  attention  of  the  scholar, 
has  been  to  him  a  positive  source  of  recreation  and 
pleasure."  If  this  biographical  material  is  neces- 
sary in  universities  and  secondary  schools,  how  much 
more  in  intermediate  and  grammar  grades. 
I  III  the  second  place,  besides  securing  a  strong  and 
lasting  interest,  they  are  instructive  in  a  double 
[sense.  The  study  of  pioneer  life  in  these  concrete 
forms  throws  into  dark  relief  the  difficulties  in  a 


46  SPECIAL  METHOD   IN   HISTORY 

primitive  society  of  overcoming  the  obstacles  in 
nature.  In  our  present  condition  of  society  it  is 
hard  for  us  to  realize  what  toil  and  effort  have  been 
expended  in  securing  our  common  blessings,  e.g. 
roads  and  bridges,  tools  and  machines,  houses  and 
schools,  and  security  from  violence.  Pioneer  life 
reveals  with  great  distinctness  the  intense  difficul- 
ties which  beset  men  in  the  earliest  stages  of  that 
growth  upward  into  our  present  civilization,  when 
the  most  necessary  things,  as  food,  ammunition, 
medicine,  and  tools,  and  even  salt  were  very  hard 
to  obtain.  Many  of  the  children,  even  of  the  com- 
mon people,  have  such  an  easy  abundance  of  all 
good  things  that  they  do  not  dream  of  the  toil 
that  these  things  have  cost.  With  the  growth  of 
city  population  and  luxury,  with  hundreds  of  boys 
and  girls  whose  sole  aim  is  amusement,  it  is  well 
to  return,  in  thought  at  least,  and  as  far  as  possible 
in  experience,  to  the  simple,  primitive  hardships  of 
our  grandparents. 

We  desire  also  to  secure  an  ^appreciative  .insight 
intO_the  beginnings  of  sociaj^jecoiiomic.  and  j>pliti- 
caL-Society.  Children  cannot  understand  this  in 
its  present  complexity.  Going  back,  however,  to 
a  simple  social  state,  they  may  more  easily  see  the 
chief  elements.  One  of  the  greatest  lessons  of 
history  is  to  discover  how,  out  of  simple  early  con- 
ditions, step  by  step,  our  present  society  and  govern- 
ment have  grown.  There  is  no  place  where  the 


HISTORY  IN  FOURTH  AND   FIFTH  GRADES         47 

simple  foundations  upon  which  the  Americans  have 
built  their  institutions  are  seen  with  such  clearness  as 
in  pioneer  life.  Professor  Frederick  J.  Turner  says  : 
"  American  social  development  has  been  continually 
beginning  over  again  on  the  frontier.  This  perennial 
rebirth,  this  fluidity  of  American  life,  this  expansion 
westward  with  its  new  opportunities,  its  continuous 
touch  with  the  simplicity  of  primitive  society,  fur- 
nish the  forces  dominating  American  character.  The 
true  point  of  view  in  the  history  of  this  nation  is  not 
the  Atlantic  coast,  it  is  the  great  West."  .  .  .  "The 
frontier  is  the  line  of  the  most  rapid  and  effective 
Americanization.  The  wilderness  masters  the  colo- 
nist. It  finds  him  a  European  in  dress,  industries, 
tools,  modes  of  travel,  and  thought.  It  takes  him 
from  the  railroad  car  and  puts  him  in  the  birch  canoe. 
It  strips  off  the  garments  of  civilization  and  arrays 
him  in  the  hunting  shirt  and  moccasin.  It  puts  him 
in  the  log  cabin  of  the  Cherokee  and  Iroquois  and 
runs  an  Indian  palisade  around  him.  Before  long 
he  has  gone  to  planting  Indian  corn  and  ploughing 
with  a  sharp  stick ;  he  shouts  the  war-cry  and  takes 
the  scalp  in  orthodox  Indian  fashion.  In  short,  at 
the  frontier  the  environment  is  at  first  too  strong 
for  the  man.  He  must  accept  the  conditions  which  it 
furnishes,  or  perish,  and  so  he  fits  himself  into  the 
clearings  and  follows  the  Indian  trails.  Little  by 
little  he  transforms  the  wilderness,  but  the  outcome 
is  not  the  old  Europe,  not  simply  the  development  of 


48  SPECIAL  METHOD  IN  HISTORY 

Germanic  germs,  any  more  than  the  first  phenome- 
non was  a  case  of  reversion  to  the  Germanic 
mark.  The  fact  is,  that  here  is  a  new  product  that 
is  American." 

While  this  kind  of  pioneer  history  does  not  aim 
to  give  us  a  comprehensive  view  of  the  great  events 
and  movements  in  our  national  life,  it  does  present, 
with  great  distinctness,  a  few  important  events  that 
have  had  a  formative  influence  upon  all  our  later 
history,  e.g.  the  efforts  of  the  French  to  get  posses- 
sion of  the  St.  Lawrence  and  of  the  Mississippi 
Valley  ;  later,  the  conflict  between  the  British  and 
the  Kentuckians  for  the  Ohio  and  Mississippi  valleys, 
the  claims  based  upon  the  discoveries  and  explora- 
tions of  the  ocean  pioneers,  Columbus,  Raleigh, 
Hudson,  etc.  Again,  the  important  Indian  tribes 
and  confederacies  are  distinctively  marked  out,  and 
their  influence  upon  the  trend  of  settlement.  Some 
of  the  great  characters  of  our  annals,  about  which 
the  memory  loves  to  linger,  men  who  stood  for 
great  and  lasting  achievements,  are  not  only  clearly 
pointed  out,  but  illustrated  with  sufficient  detail  to 
give  the  colors  of  real  life. 

This  leads  us  to  our  third  point.  Is  the  moral 
benefit  of  a  proper  teaching  of  these  materials 
clear  and  positive?  Simply  to  name  a  few  of  the 
men  is  almost  sufficient  answer.  Columbus,  Raleigh, 
La  Salle,  Penn,  Marquette,  Washington,  Lincoln. 
The  deeds  and  character  which  these  names  suggest 


HISTORY  IN  FOURTH  AND  FIFTH   GRADES         49 

are  what  we  desire  to  see  emulated  among  the  youth. 
As  a  means  of  moral  education,  the  history  of 
pioneer  life  is  offered  with  great  confidence.  Moral 
impulses  and  dispositions  are  cultivated  by  giving 
the  opening  mind  of  the  child  a  chance  to  admire 
and  approve  right  actions  in  others.  These  biogra- 
phies may  serve,  in  short,  as  a  series  of  object  lessons 
in  character  and  morals.  In  studying  the  lives  of 
men  we  pass  moral  judgments,  and  pass  them  with 
fervor.  The  feelings  and  incentives  aroused  (espe- 
cially if  their  daily  practical  bearings  are  kept  in 
mind)  pass  over  into  moral  convictions  which  influence 
our  later  actions.  By  a  good  selection  of  intrinsically 
valuable  history  stories,  which  create  a  strong  per- 
sonal interest,  it  is  possible,  under  good  instruction, 
to  exert  a  direct  moral  influence  in  the  formation  of 
character  in  pupils. 

Method  of  Treating  History  Stories  in  Fourth 
and  Fifth  Grades 

Let  it  be  assumed  that  we  have  found  out  what 
parts  of  American  biography  and  history  are  best 
suited  to  instruct  and  stimulate  children  in  these 
grades.  We  are  to  consider  next  in  what  manner 
they  may  get  at  and  appreciate  these  stories.  Would 
it  be  possible  to  leave  them  entirely  to  the  home  and 
extra-school  occupations  of  the  pupils  ?  Are  they 
likely,  without  school  aid,  to  find  the  choicest  epi- 


5O  SPECIAL  METHOD   IN   HISTORY 

sodes  in  our  history ;  and,  having  found  them,  will 
they,  unaided,  get  into  the  life  and  spirit  of  the  men 
about  whom  they  read  ?  Or,  again,  supposing  that 
these  materials  are  furnished  to  children  in  supple- 
mentary readers,  or  even  in  school  histories,  to  be 
learned  and  recited,  can  we  count  upon  the  right 
results  ? 

First,  there  are  very  few  books  touching  American 
biography  or  history  which  can  be  read  easily  by  the 
children  of  the  fourth  and  fifth  grades.  Their  aver- 
age reading  capacity  is  considerably  limited.  They 
can  understand  many  things  presented  to  them  orally 
which  they  would  appropriate  with  difficulty  in  a 
printed  form.  Their  power  to  think,  reason,  and 
understand  is  much  greater  than  their  readiness  to 
grasp  thought  from  the  printed  page.  It  is  certainly 
desirable  to  induce  children  to  read  biography  and 
history  and  to  cultivate  a  taste  for  them  as  soon  as 
they  have  the  ability  and  inclination.  But  average 
children  do  not  drink  much  from  this  fountain  un- 
less they  have  acquired  some  taste  for  its  waters. 
The  oral  treatment  of  these  stories,  when  the  per- 
sonal interest,  energy,  and  skill  of  the  teacher  give 
the  facts  and  scenes  an  almost  real  and  tangible  form 
—  this  oral  treatment  is  the  thing  and  the  only  thing 
to  give  a  child  the  best  start  in  historical  study.  There 
are  doubtless  a  few  bright  children  in  every  school  who 
will  browse  for  themselves  if  only  the  suitable  books 
are  put  before  them,  but  even  these  brighter  minds  are 


ORAL  TREATMENT  OF   HISTORY  STORIES  51 

apt  to  become  slovenly  readers  if  left  without  train- 
ing in  the  power  to  realize  and  objectify  the  things 
read.  We  have  in  mind,  however,  not  the  excep- 
tional few,  but  the  great  body  of  school  children, 
and  wish  to  determine  what  history  can  do  to 
strengthen  their  characters  and  stir  up  vigorous 
thought. 

A  story  becomes  more  graphic,  interesting,  realis- 
tic, in  the  hands  of  a  good  teacher.  Not  only  are 
his  descriptions  more  animated,  picturesque,  collo- 
quial, adapting  themselves  to  the  faces,  moods,  and 
varied  thoughts  and  suggestions  of  the  pupils,  but 
there  can  be  a  discussion  of  causes  by  pupils  and 
teacher,  a  weighing  of  probabilities,  a  use  of  the 
blackboard  for  graphic  drawing  or  diagram,  a  vari- 
ety of  homely  illustrations,  an  appeal  to  the  chil- 
dren's previous  experience  and  reading  such  as  is 
impossible  in  the  mere  memorizing  of  a  book. 

It  is  a  favorite  statement  of  writers  and  teachers 
that  children  must  learn  to  use  books.  But  unless  , 
books  are  used  with  intelligence  and  spirit  no  good  j 
result  follows.  Thousands  of  children  in  our  schools 
use  almost  nothing  but  books,  but  after  leaving 
school  never  read  books  nor  care  for  them.  The 
way  to  learn  to  use  books  is  to  learn  to  appreciate 
and  enjoy  the  things  found  in  books.  The  text-book 
has  become  to  a  large  extent  in  this  country  a  syno- 
nym for  dulness.  Many  teachers  have  deceived 
themselves  with  the  belief  that  even  a  dull,  routine 


52  SPECIAL  METHOD   IN   HISTORY 

use  of  text-books  would  somehow  make  children 
expert  in  the  use  of  books.  It  may  be  said  with 
more  truth  that  only  those  persons  have  learned  to 
use  books  who,  after  once  learning  to  read,  have 
broken  loose  from  text-books  and  have  allowed  them- 
selves a  free  range  among  the  books  of  spirit  and 
power. 

No  author,  however  talented  or  fertile  in  language, 
can  supply  what  the  interest,  resource,  and  skill  of  a 
good  teacher  brings  to  the  recitation.  Any  doubts 
on  the  part  of  the  pupils  can  be  solved,  any  miscon- 
ceptions corrected,  when  the  pupils  take  up  the  oral 
reproduction  of  the  stories. 

Where  geography  is  involved,  maps  and  sketches 
can  be  discussed  in  such  a  vivid  and  cause-revealing 
connection  as  to  make  the  situations  and  the  diffi- 
culties clear  to  the  mind's  eye.  Where  persons  and 
scenes  are  presented,  pictures  may  often  greatly 
aid  the  verbal  descriptions.  Comparisons  with  home 
objects,  in  regard  to  size  or  resemblance  in  form, 
give  greater  precision,  reality,  and  spirit  to  the 
thought  products. 

In  history  the  oral  presentation  largely  takes  the 
place  of  the  object  in  natural  science  studies.  We 
desire  to  draw  so  near  to  historical  persons,  scenes, 
or  occasions  as  to  stand  in  their  presence,  to  so  exer- 
cise the  imagination  as  to  become  the  eye-witnesses 
of  the  facts.  It  is  impossible  to  reproduce  history 
except  through  the  imagination. 


ORAL  TREATMENT  OF   HISTORY   STORIES  53 

When  a  person  has  read  a  play  of  Shakespeare 
under  the  suggestion  and  stimulus  of  a  thoughtful 
admirer  of  the  great  poet,  he  will  read  all  other 
plays  with  improved  judgment  and  appreciation. 
When  a  child  has  learned  how  to  interpret  one  his- 
tory story  through  the  aid  of  an  enthusiastic  teacher, 
he  will  read  other  history  stories  with  better  under- 
standing. A  course  of  oral  lessons  in  a  series  of 
American  history  episodes  and  biographies  is  a 
preparation  for  a  later  study  of  history  in  a  double 
sense.  A  keen  and  abiding  interest  is  awakened  in 
a  few  of  our  stanchest  men.  A  deeper  and  more 
practical  realization  of  the  difficulties  and  hardships 
of  these  men  and  of  their  physical  environment  is 
secured.  If  we  are  to  realize  the  significance  of  his- 
tory and  of  men's  conduct  as  there  expressed,  we 
must  see  and  feel  their  dangers,  trials,  and  physical 
limitations.  The  simple  memorizing  of  facts  and 
descriptions  from  text-books  manifestly  falls  far 
short  of  true  history  study.  How  far  a  good  teacher 
may  supplement,  criticise,  and  energize  the  facts  of 
a  text-book  so  as  to  give  them  actuality  may  be 
fairly  asked.  But  even  before  any  text-book  is  or 
can  be  used,  we  may  get  at  the  soul  of  the  matter 
through  a  direct  personal  presentation  of  stories  by 
the  teacher  and  in  the  midst  of  a  running  fire  of  ques- 
tions, suggestions,  and  reasoning  at  causes  which 
both  stimulate  interest  and  thought,  and  give  a 
strong  tone  of  reality  to  the  events  discussed. 


54  SPECIAL   METHOD   IN   HISTORY 


The  Method  of  Oral  Presentation 

We  have  called  for  a  vivid  and  realistic  presenta- 
tion of  a  narrative  and  its  setting  by  the  teacher. 

In  one  sense  this  is  a  heavy  demand  upon  teachers, 
and  one  to  which  they  are  not  much  accustomed 
to  respond.  Skill,  facility,  and  tact  in  this  line  of 
exertion  are  acquired  by  most  teachers  slowly.  It 
seems,  however,  to  be  a  misapprehension  to  suppose 
that  only  the  gifted  few  are  capable  of  this  kind  of 
success.  Those  who  are  slow  and  halting  in  speech, 
or  who  have  no  special  gift  for  story-telling,  may  be 
eminently  successful.  In  truth,  one  of  the  first  and 
most  important  requirements  of  a  teacher  in  success- 
ful story-telling  is  to  hold  his  tongue,  to  check  his 
volubility.  He  must,  however,  acquire  skill  in  mak- 
ing facts  and  situations  vivid  to  children.  He  must 
possess  the  magic  wand  which  touches  their  imagina- 
tions so  that  they  construct  pictures  that  approximate 
the  distinctness  of  reality.  First,  the  teacher  himself 
must  possess  feeling  and  imagination ;  he  must  see 
things  with  great  distinctness  and  detail,  and  he  must 
find  homely  phrases,  striking  or  amusing  analogies, 
gestures,  and  facial  expression.  Graphic  sketches 
and  outlines  on  the  blackboard  must  be  at  his  dis- 
posal. He  must  learn  to  exercise  all  his  faculties 
with  great  freedom  before  a  class.  He  must  be 
quick  in  sympathy  and  ready  to  interpret  a  child's 


ORAL  TREATMENT  OF  HISTORY   STORIES          55 

questions  or  remarks.  The  previous  knowledge  of 
children,  their  home  experiences,  as  well  as  facts 
remembered  from  books,  must  be  called  out  in  eluci- 
dation of  the  topic  under  discussion.  But  it  is  neces- 
sary to  use  these  home  materials  without  allowing 
either  teacher  or  pupils  to  be  drawn  aside  from  the 
main  topic.  The  intelligent  judgment  and  self- 
activity  of  pupils  should  be  exercised  at  every  turn  in 
the  story.  They  are  stimulated  by  questions  as  to 
facts,  causes,  probable  sequence,  reasons. 

A  particular  kind  of  preparation  for  such  oral 
lessons,  rendered  obligatory  by  the  whole  character 
of  the  work,  is  ilie^clear  and  definite  arrangement  jof 
the  story  into  a  series  of  topics.  It  is  not  sufficient 
to  read  the  story  through  carefully  so  as  to  get  a 
clear  sequence  of  events  and  a  memory  for  the  facts. 
The  teacher's  mind  should  cast  the  story  into  a  series 
of  unities  or  topics,  each  of  which  has  a  nucleus  or 
centre  with  a  body  of  related  facts  which  find  their 
cause  and  explanation  in  this  centre.  Each  topic  is 
projected  as  a  unit  in  the  mind  of  the  teacher.  It 
should  be  an  essential  link  in  a  chain  of  important 
sequences.  In  the  recitation  each  topic  should  be 
mastered  before  proceeding  to  what  follows.  As 
each  topic  is  presented  by  the  teacher  and  repro- 
duced by  the  pupil,  a  brief  outline  may  be  kept  on 
the  board,  of  the  topics  discussed,  and  this  outline 
becomes  the  basis  of  all  reproductions  after  the 
whole  subject  has  been  presented. 


56  SPECIAL  METHOD   IN   HISTORY 

This  power  to  get  at  the  essential  segments  or  the 
pivotal  points  in  a  story  is  an  excellent  logical  train- 
ing for  the  teacher.  He  must  see  a  series  of  events 
in  their  essential  aspects,  in  their  causal  relation,  and 
in  their  relative  importance.  Such  a  careful  analysis 
of  a  story  into  clearly  distinct  topics  calls  for  a 
thoughtful  digestion  of  the  materials,  which  goes  far 
toward  a  pedagogical  mastery  of  a  subject  for  teach- 
ing purposes.  A  teacher  must  learn  to  be  thought- 
ful, logical,  and  clear-headed. 

But  if  the  teacher  has  learned  to  think  sensibly 
and  to  organize  his  lesson  into  prominent  headings 
which  will  stand  a  close  logical  test,  it  is  clear  that 
the  children  will  be  trained  into  logical  and  rational 
modes  of  thinking  and  study.  Children  will  learn  to 
do  more  than  simply  memorize.  They  learn  to 
estimate  and  judge  the  value  of  the  points  discussed, 
to  discriminate  between  the  important  and  secondary 
facts,  to  notice  the  proper  relations  and  groupings  of 
facts. 

This  series  of  topics  upon  which  we  have  laid  such 
stress  should  be  expressed  on  the  blackboard  in  the 
form  of  suitable  words,  phrases,  or  short  sentences. 
After  a  topic  has  been  fully  presented  by  a  teacher, 
it  is  often  well  to  ask  the  children  for  a  brief  phrase 
which  suggests  the  gist  of  the  matter.  Some  expres- 
sion furnished  by  the  pupils  may  serve  for  the  head- 
ing, or  it  may  be  modified,  to  give  a  more  definite 
and  exact  form. 


ORAL  TREATMENT  OF  HISTORY   STORIES          57 


The  Reproduction  by  the  Pupils 

When  the  teacher  has  done  his  full  duty  in  a 
vigorous  and  clear  presentation  of  the  facts  in  a 
topic,  his  next  duty  lies  in  devolving  the  work  of 
reproducing  a  story  upon  the  children.  It  is  for  the  i 
pupils  now  to  show  how  attentive  they  have  been, 
and  how  fully  they  can  recall  and  express  the  ideas 
already  presented.  Let  the  teacher  firmly  decline  to 
do  the  pupil's  part  of  the  work.  Let  him  not  pump 
answers  from  the  children.  The  briefest  possible 
questions,  or  corrections,  or  checks,  or  signs  of 
approval  are  all  that  is  needed.  Brevity  and  silence 
are  the  teacher's  chief  merits  at  this  stage  of  the  / 
work. 

The  topic  should  generally  be  reproduced  more 
than  once;  at  first,  perhaps,  by  one  of  the  readier 
pupils,  and  thetis.  by  two  or  three  others.  The 
children's  reproductions  will  show  misconceptions 
that  must  be  corrected  by  other  pupils  or  by  the 
teacher.  Still  further  explanations  may  be  given  by 
the  teacher  after  the  child's  work  is  finished.  We 
cannot  be  satisfied  with  anything  short  of  a  thorough 
appropriation  of  the  facts  as  at  first  presented.  It 
will  pay  to  stick  to  one  topic  till  the  victory  is  com- 
plete. The  children  have  no  books  to  study,  and  if 
they  ever  get  the  facts,  they  must  do  it  now.  The 
welding  must  take  place  while  the  iron  is  hot  or  it 


58  SPECIAL  METHOD   IN   HISTORY 

will  never  be  done.  Close  attention  is  indispensable 
in  this  work,  and  if  it  can  be  first  secured  by  the 
teacher  in  the  classroom,  its  effects  will  be  felt  in 
their  home  and  private  studies.  If  children  dawdle 
when  studying  at  home,  it  is  partially  because  they 
are  allowed  to  dawdle  during  recitations  at  school. 

One  of  the  incidental  advantages  that  springs  from 
^ral_presentatiorj  anH  rpprn^nrtinn  of  history  stories 
is_a jstraightfpj[ward,  forcible  use^of_good^  English. 
But  many  corrections  of  faulty  words  and  phrases 
are  made  necessary.  These  corrections  may  be 
made  quietly  by  the  teacher  without  seriously  inter- 
rupting the  pupil's  course  of  thought.  Our  primary 
aim,  however,  is  not  language  drill,  but  the  culture 
that  liec  in  history. 

After  a  series  of  topics  has  been  worked  out  with 
alternate  presentation  and  reproduction,  it  is  in  place 
to  call  for  a  full  narration  of  the  whole  subject  by 
one  or  more  pupils.  The  brief  outline  on  the  board 
ought  to  be  sufficient  to  guide  the  pupil  without  ques- 
tions from  the  instructor.  Success  in  this  reproduc- 
tion is  a  final  test  of  the  mastery  of  the  story.  The 
topics  presented  one  day,  however,  should  be  re- 
viewed the  next  by  the  students,  and  this  repe- 
tition continued  till  the  mastery  is  felt  to  be 
satisfactory. 

The  children  should  keep  a  blank-book,  such  as  an 

7 ordinary  composition  book,  into  which  the  outlines 
developed  may  be  copied  by  the  children  once  or 


ORAL  TREATMENT  OF   HISTORY   STORIES          59 

twice  a  week.  It  should  be  done  in  ink,  with  neat- 
ness and  care,  and  these  outlines  may  serve  well, 
at  the  close  of  the  term,  for  the  final  review  and 
reproduction. 

Difficulties 

There  are  gp;YPra1  difficulties  in  the  way  of  sat- 
isfactory oral  jyork  of  the  kind  described  which 
prevent  practical  teachers  from  undertaking  it :  — 

i.  In  the  training  of  our  teachers^  not  much  care 
is  taken  to  acquire  the  ability  to  present  a  subject 
well  to  a  class.  It  is  an  art  difficult  to  acquire  in 
many  cases,  and  not  generally  regarded  as  valuable. 
The  function  of  the  teacher  has  been  found  in  assign- 
ing and  testing  rather  than  in  the  presentation  of 
knowledge. 

An  oral  method  of  teaching  is  liable  to  great 
abuses,  because  it  is  really  a  difficult  art.  But  it  is 
reasonable  for  us  to  raise  the  question  whether  a 
teacher,  in  declining  to  treat  certain  subjects  orally 
which  are  best  adapted  to  it,  is  not  consulting  his 
convenience  and  laziness  rather  than  the  rules  of  his 
art.  If  a  teacher  does  not  know  a  subject  well 
enough  to  present  it  in  a  clear  and  interesting  way 
to  his  class,  he  does  not  know  it  as  well  as  a  teacher 
should.  He  has  not  thoroughly  assimilated  it  and 
organized  it  in  his  own  mind.  The  teacher  who  is 
called  upon  to  present  a  lesson  to  a  class  will  master 


60  SPECIAL  METHOD   IN   HISTORY 

it  in  a  more  effective  way  than  the  mere  hearer  ot 
recitations.  He  will  also  seek  to  adapt  his  facts  to 
the  minds  of  the  class  and  to  make  them  clear  by 
means  of  drawings  or  illustrations  and  other  devices. 
If  his  own  mind  is  awake  and  aglow  with  the  ideas 
he  is  discussing  or  presenting,  the  children's  thoughts 
will  kindle.  If  it  is  possible  to  put  such  safeguards 
around  oral  teaching  as  will  keep  it  from  degenerat- 
ing into  talk,  we  shall  find  it  a  means  of  stimulus. 

Clear,  vivid,  animated  presentation  of  ideas  to  a 
class,  though  difficult,  is  an  excellent  aim  for  teachers 
to  keep  in  view,  because  it  will  regenerate  their 
school  activity.  There  are,  of  course,  a  good  many 
lessons  in  arithmetic,  grammar,  and  reading  that 
must  be  learned  from  text-books.  To  these  our 
remarks  apply  but  indirectly.  In  geography,  history, 
language,  and  natural  science  there  are  lessons  in 
plenty  that  call  for  oral  treatment,  where  pupil  and 
teacher  come  face  to  face  in  the  discussion  of  facts. 

2.  Oral  teaching  calls  for  close  and  constant 
attention  from  all  jpembers_oj^  a  class  —  a  somewhat 
difficult  thing  to  secure.  The  habit  of  inattention 
formed  in  our  schools  reveals  one  of  the  most  vul- 
nerable points  in  our  present  method.  There  is  a 
striking  difference  between  American  and  European 
schools  of  the  better  sort,  in  this  respect 

An  exclusive  text-book  method  of  studying  and 
teaching  undermines  attention  in  the  classroom. 
The  strongest  attention  is  required  in  learning  the 


ORAL  TREATMENT  OF   HISTORY  STORIES          6l 

lesson  before  the  recitation,  but  the  class  period  is 
characterized  by  general  looseness,  except  for  each 
particular  child  when  called  up  to  recite. 

An  oral  method  is  based  fundamentally  upon  strict 
attention.  The  facts  must  be  acquired  in  the  class, 
or  not  at  all.  The  habits  of  attention  formed  in  good  / 
classroom  work  will  also  strengthen  the  children  in 
home  study  and  initiate  them  into  the  right  method 
of  attention  and  study.  In  reply  to  all  this,  it  may 
be  truly  said  that  a  vigorous  teacher  will  secure 
attention  whether  teaching  orally  or  from  a  text- 
book. However  true  this  may  be,  there  is  a  natural 
tendency  to  laxity  in  a  text-book  method,  while  the 
necessity  for  close  attention  is  much  more  apparent 
and  is  really  imperative  in  an  oral  presentation  and 
treatment. 

3.  The  growth  of  self-activity  in  the  children  should 
spring  directly  from  oral  instruction.  But  the  idea 
that  children  should  do  everything  for  themselves, 
by  their  own  self-activity,  has  been  commonly  used 
to  support  our  text-book  method  and  to  bring  dis- 
credit upon  oral  teaching.  The  ridicule  heaped  upon 
the  "  pouring  in "  and  "  drawing  out  "  process  has 
also  confirmed  us  in  the  belief  that  our  present  method  / 
of  learning  and  reciting  from  books  is,  after  all,  the 
best. 

It  is  an  admitted  fact  that  children  in  our  inter- 
mediate and  grammar  grades  in  town  schools  have 
very  little  self-reliance  or  thoughtfulness.  They  are 


62  SPECIAL   METHOD   IN   HISTORY 

overwhelmingly  inclined  to   mechanical   methods  of 

work,  memorizing  phrases  in  arithmetic,  geography, 

>  and  grammar.     After  an  infinite  amount  of  talking 

,  \  about  self -reliance,  and  s.e.lf-activity  by  teachers,  chil- 

i  — . • —  — t — *—  — 

I  dren  become  neither  self-reliant  nor  self-active.    Such 
terms  as  "  self-activity  "  and  "  self-reliance  "  may  be 
bandied  about  among  teachers  forever,  but  they  will 
not  save  us  from  the  inherent  weaknesses  of  mechani- 
|  cal  methods  in   teaching.     What  we   need   is    more 
1  energy,    spirit,   and    interest   in   the    subjects,   both 
1  among  teachers  and  pupils.     Will  good  oral  teaching 
help  us  in  this  respect  ?     There  is  some  danger  that 
our  ideal  of  a  teacher  will  be  lowered  by  constantly 
thinking  of  him  as  a  drill-master,  a  hearer  of  recita- 
tions, a  tester  of  acquired  facts.     Xhe  best  thing  that 
a  Jeacher  q&T\  jo  i§  tfl  stimulate  and  arpugp- 

The  real  genesis  of  self-activity  and  power  to  think 
should  be  found  in  these  oral  lessons  where  the  in- 
structor can  adapt  his  explanations  and  questions  to 
the  individuals  of  his  class.  This  is  the  best  place 
to  find  out  what  is  in  a  boy,  and  to  bring  out  all  the 
facts  of  his  experience  in  the  search  for  causes.  The 
oral  lesson,  above  all  others,  is  the  place  to  throw  a 
child  back  upon  his  own  resources  of  thought  But 
this  requires  expert  skill. 

4.  It  is  difficult  to  get  teachers  to  properly  organize 
an  oral  lesson  into  topics,  to  uold  in  mind  a  clear, 
logical  outline  of  points,  and  to  make  this  outline 
the  basis  for  reproductions  and  later  reviews.  They 


ORAL  TREATMENT  OF   HISTORY   STORIES          63 

forget  to  fix  the  chief  points  or  topics  as  they  go. 
They  move  over  the  ground,  but  neglect  to  stake  it 
off  as  they  go,  and  both  teacher  and  pupils  become 
muddled.  Without  a  clear  succession  of  distinct 
topics  in  oral  lessons,  the  work  becomes  hazy  and 
scattering,  and  the  results  must  be  desultory.  Such 
an  outline  is  indispensable  if  oral  lessons  are  to  be 
logical,  clear,  and  of  permanent  value. 

5.  We  are  often  met  with  the  objection  that  time 
is  wanting  for  such  oral  recitations  in  our  present 
school  programmes.      This  is  true,  but  programmes 
can  be  modified.    In  several  studies  oral  lessons  have 
found  a  recognized  place  in  the  school  programme,  as 
is  the  case  with  general  lessons,  stories  in  primary 
grades,  and    elementary  science  in  all  grades.      In 
these   cases   the    text-book  is   acknowledged   to   be 
inadequate.      If  the   same   is  found   true  of  history 
lessons  in  intermediate  grades,  we  shall  find  time  for 
oral  lessons.     Two  devices  may  be  used  to  modify 
our  present  programmes.    As  oral  recitations  require 
more  time,  let  us  have  but  two  such  lessons  a  week, 
instead  of  five,  and  thus  more  than  double  the  length 
of  the  period.     Form  the  school  into  larger  classes, 
combining  several  smaller  classes  into  one  for  oral 
history  lessons.    The  general  tendency  of  oral  lessons 
is  to  leave  less  time  for  seat-study  during  school  hours, 
but  more  for  close,  intent  recitation  work. 

6.  One  of  the  chief  difficulties  that  stands  in  the 
way  of  good  oral  teaching  is  the  lack  of  materials 


64  SPECIAL  METHOD   IN   HISTORY 

such  as  a  teacher  can  use  for  oral  presentation  and 
discussion. 

The  moment  a  teacher  begins  to  treat  a  subject 
orally,  he  calls  for  more  abundant  and  detailed  mate- 
rials on  those  topics  than  our  text-books  furnish.  In 
geography,  history,  and  natural  science  he  goes  on 
a  skirmish  for  facts  that  have  more  meaning  than 
the  barren  statements  in  our  texts.  He  needs  more 
that  is  interesting  and  significant. 

This  is  true  in  the  history  stories.  We  require 
fuller  and  more  detailed  accounts  of  our  leading 
pioneers.  Quite  a  number  of  books  containing  his- 
tory stories  for  children  have  been  published  of  late, 
but  most  of  them  are  too  meagre.  They  are  too 
much  in  bondage  to  the  old  text-book  idea  that  it 
is  a  few  leading  facts  that  we  want  instead  of  pictures 
of  men  and  of  the  times  taken  from  life,  full  of 
adventure,  spirit,  and  circumstance. 

These  are  some  of  the  difficulties  and  prejudicial 
customs  that  stand  in  the  way  of  oral  teaching. 

There  are  other  inherent  objections  that  are  em- 
phasized by  our  experience.  Oral  teaching  has  been 
looked  upon  as  one  of  the  fads.  It  is  thought  to 
have  had  its  day,  run  its  course,  and  passed  away 
with  its  mistakes.  It  brought  some  life  and  enthusi- 
asm into  school  work,  but  was  barren  of  results.  It 
wasted  time  in  fruitless  discussions. .  All  this  was 
only  too  nearly  true,  and  if  oral  teaching  were  now 
introduced  among  us  on  a  large  scale,  it  would  prove 


ORAL  TREATMENT  OF   HISTORY   STORIES          65 

but  partially  satisfactory.  The  chief  difficulty  lies  in 
the  fact  that  the  great  majority  of  teachers  are  poorly 
equipped  for  their  work.  They  do  not  know  enough 
of  their  subject,  and  their  knowledge  is  not  organized 
so  as  to  be  brought  into  presentable  shape.  A  good 
text-book  is  a  godsend  to  a  poorly  equipped  teacher 
as  well  as  a  help  to  a  good  one. 

But  there  is  a  growing  class  of  teachers  who 
believe  in  their  profession  and  are  giving  it  their  best 
energy.  Oral  teaching  offers  to  such  a  ladder  by 
which  they  may  climb  up  to  higher  professional  effi- 
ciency and  success. 

There  is  also  at  present  a  strong  drift  toward 
oral  teaching  in  literature,  natural  science,  and 
geography.  All  experts  are  now  fairly  well  agreed 
that  children  cannot  get  their  knowledge  of  plants, 
animals,  and  natural  phenomena  from  books.  Ob- 
servation, experiment,  and  oral  discussion  are  the 
only  available  avenues  of  approach  to  the  natural 
sciences.  In  geography,  also,  the  best  work  in 
third,  fourth,  and  fifth  grades  is  now  done  in  oral 
lessons.  Clear  and  graphic  description,  oral  dis- 
cussion and  reproduction  of  topics,  make  up  the 
essentials  of  good  work.  Maps,  pictures,  and  books 
are  tributary  to  this  oral  work.  If  these  subjects 
are  ever  properly  taught  in  our  schools,  it  must  be 
done  in  early  grades,  without  text-books,  by  letting 
teacher  and  children  stand  face  to  face  with  the 
facts. 


66  SPECIAL  METHOD   IN   HISTORY 

Parallel  with  the  effort  to  introduce  natural  science 
and  geography  in  spirited  oral  work  is  the  effort 
to  get  our  best  literature  through  good  story-telling 
into  the  lower  and  intermediate  grades.  First-grade 
children  cannot  read  fables  and  fairy  stories ;  they 
must  hear  them.  "  Robinson  Crusoe  "  in  the  second 
grade,  and  mythical  stories  in  the  third,  are  best 
presented  by  the  living  voice  of  the  teacher.  There 
is  no  such  vivid  way  of  putting  the  best  classical 
myths  and  stories  before  children  in  the  intermediate 
grades  as  by  oral  presentation. 

In  history,  also,  a  life-giving  instruction  at  the 
threshold  of  study  is  just  as  dependent  upon  good 
oral  presentation  as  in  natural  science,  geography, 
and  literature.  Experience  abundantly  shows  that 
to  put  history  books  into  the  hands  of  children  at 
the  beginning  of  history  study  is  a  blunt  mistake. 
It  is  the  special  duty  of  the  teacher  to  open  the 
way  to  book  study  by  a  skilful  and  interesting  oral 
treatment  of  stories. 

The  Solution  of  Problems  in  Oral  Instruction 

The  question  how  far  children  can  think  for  them- 
selves, that  is,  can  reason  and  draw  inferences,  is 
in  part  for  good  oral  instruction  to  answer.  It  may 
seem  strange  to  suggest  that  oral  instruction  in 
history  should  set  up  problems  to  solve.  It  has 
been  so  long  the  custom  of  history  teaching  to  re- 


ORAL  TREATMENT  OF  HISTORY   STORIES          67 

quire  merely  the  memorizing  of  facts  that  an  inde- 
pendent thought-process  or  self-activity  on  the 
learner's  part  has  been  lost  sight  of.  The  chance 
to  solve  problems  presented  in  oral  history  lessons 
opens  up  an  interesting  field  both  for  teachers  and 
children.  History  stories  are  full  of  problems  which 
may  stimulate  the  thinking  power,  if  got  before  the 
pupil  in  their  true  bearings.  Stories  of  adventure 
and  heroic  enterprise,  such  as  the  pioneer  biog- 
raphies, bring  the  actors  into  the  presence  of 
difficulties  and  dangers  which  they  must  have  the 
inventive  wit  to  circumvent  or  master.  The  story 
of  Magellan  is  a  series  of  problems  and  difficulties 
which  this  rare  man  made  into  stepping-stones  to 
final  success.  La  Salle,  in  exploring  the  great  lakes 
and  the  Mississippi,  is  sometimes  called  the  invincible 
Norman,  because  he  could  never  be  conquered  by 
difficulties.  The  emergencies  in  which  such  men 
were  placed,  and  out  of  which  they  rescued  them- 
selves, furnish  choice  opportunities  to  the  best  oral 
instruction.  The  story  of  the  journey  of  the  gold 
seekers  to  California,  in  1849,  illustrates  this.  The 
caravan  of  sixteen  wagons,  with  forty-one  men,  was 
moving  slowly  along  the  Nebraska  River.  On  the 
low  hills,  two  or  three  miles  away,  they  one  day 
saw  a  great  cloud  of  dust  made  by  a  large  troop  of 
horsemen ;  probably  Indians  on  the  war  path,  or  out 
for  plunder.  What  should  the  men  and  the  long 
caravan  of  sixteen  wagons  do  in  this  emergency  ? 


68  SPECIAL   METHOD   IN   HISTORY 

At  this  point  the  teacher  may  call  a  halt  and  ask 
the  children  to  solve  the  problem.  It  requires  some 
time  and  thoughtfulness,  and  even  some  blundering 
on  the  part  of  the  children  ;  but  they  will  soon  work 
it  out  if  left  to  their  own  power  of  thought,  as  the 
author  has  discovered  on  several  occasions. 

Later,  upon  this  same  journey,  the  caravan  of 
heavily-laden  wagons  had  just  succeeded  in  crossing 
the  salt  desert  west  of  the  Great  Salt  Lake.  One 
evening,  worn  out  with  travel,  they  reached  the 
head  waters  of  the  Humbolt  River,  where  they  found 
a  camping  place  and  grass  for  their  animals.  While 
the  others  slept,  four  men  were  appointed  to  guard 
the  camp.  But,  weary  with  travel,  the  four  men, 
one  after  another,  fell  asleep,  and  a  prowling  band 
of  Snake  Indians  from  the  north  crept  into  the 
camp,  cut  the  ropes  of  the  horses  and  mules  and 
drove  them  all  away.  Some  three  or  four  hours 
later  the  men  awakened  and  discovered  their  loss. 
The  Indians,  on  horseback,  had  a  four  hours'  start. 
Behind  the  weary  travellers,  toward  the  east,  lay  the 
salt  desert,  which  they  had  crossed  with  difficulty. 
To  the  west  the  trail  stretched  away  six  hundred 
miles  to  California  and  the  gold  mines,  without  a 
settlement  between.  The  wagons  were  heavily 
loaded  with  all  their  goods.  What  should  the  gold- 
seekers  do  under  these  circumstances?  Leave  this 
for  the  children  to  decide.  At  least  let  them  talk 
it  over  and  make  their  several  proposals,  some  of 


ORAL  TREATMENT  OF  HISTORY   STORIES          69 

which  may  prove  ridiculous  or  impossible.  Let 
them  study  the  map  if  necessary.  The  more  they 
think  about  it  the  more  they  will  realize  the 
desperate  situation  in  which  these  men  were  placed. 
If  it  were  toward  the  close  of  the  recitation,  it 
might  be  well  to  leave  it,  like  a  problem  in  arithme- 
tic, for  the  next  lesson. 

In  problems  of  this  sort  it  is  evidently  the  business 
of  the  teacher  to  make  unmistakably  clear  to  the 
children  the  conditions,  that  is,  the  environing  diffi- 
culties which  beset  the  men.  The  great  thing  at 
first  is  to  get  the  facts  which  lead  up  to  such  an 
emergency  and  to  have  them  clearly  imaged  in  the 
minds  of  the  children.  In  this  connection  appears 
the  very  great  advantage  of  having  stories  which 
are  simple,  in  which  the  surrounding  conditions  can 
be  made  perfectly  clear  to  their  understanding. 
This  is  a  peculiarity  of  the  pioneer  history  stories 
to  a  marked  degree.  This  is  more  so,  perhaps,  than 
in  any  other  class  of  stories  that  could  be  mentioned. 
The  trappings  of  civilization  are  removed.  The 
simplest  conditions  of  nature  must  be  met. 

A  general  on  the  battle-field  has  to  deal  with  a  / 
complex  situation  which  a  child  cannot  easily  under- 
stand.     A   statesman   in   a   political   or    diplomatic 
emergency  is  dealing  with  intricate  and  tangled  rela- 
tions which  no  child  can  appreciate.      But  the  pio-  ^ 
neer   heroes  were   face  to   face  with  simple,  crude 
situations  which  a  child  can  grasp.     For  young  chil- 


7O  SPECIAL  METHOD   IN   HISTORY 

dren,  therefore,  just  beginning  history,  they  are 
strikingly  interesting  and  appropriate.  Biographical 
stories  taken  from  later  and  more  complex  periods 
of  our  history,  such  as  those  of  Hamilton,  Jefferson, 
Garfield,  and  Grant,  are  not  so  well  suited  to  younger 
children.  They  cannot  appreciate  these  men  and 
their  surroundings.  They  can  solve  no  problems  in 
connection  with  them  unless  it  be  some  exploits  of 
their  boyhood  life.  Many  writers  of  stories  for  chil- 
dren have  not  discriminated  between  the  simple  and 
the  complex  in  biography. 

Another  advantage  in  many  of  these  stories  is  that 
each  has  a  central  aim  or  purpose,  which  is  con- 
stantly in  the  mind  of  the  chief  actors.  This  aim 
points  the  direction  in  which  effort  must  be  ex- 
pended, and  any  intervening  difficulties  must  be 
overcome.  In  one  of  his  expeditions  into  the  Rocky 
Mountains  and  beyond,  Fremont,  in  command  of  a 
small  band  of  explorers,  found  himself,  about  Christ- 
mas time,  at  the  foot  of  the  east  slope  of  the  Sierra 
Nevada  Mountains.  For  several  reasons  he  did  not 
wish  to  winter  in  this  barren  region,  and  decided  to 
cross  the  Sierra  Nevada  into  California,  in  midwinter, 
over  a  lofty  mountain-range,  wholly  unexplored. 
With  this  purpose  in  mind  he  set  out  to  wrestle  with 
the  difficulties  of  deep  snows,  rugged  mountains,  and 
freezing  weather.  The  aim  set  up  gave  purpose  and 
direction  to  every  day's  effort. 

In  such  stories  as  these  the  causal  sequence  be- 


ORAL  TREATMENT   OF   HISTORY    STORIES          71 

:ween  the  facts  is  so  close  that  the  reasons  for  each 
action  can  be  clearly  seen.  It  is  the  logic  of  neces- 
sity which  is  here  at  work  and  which  the  children 
are  following  with  intense  concern.  This  also  fur- 
nishes the  back-bone  of  good  thinking,  and  the  pur- 
pose held  in  mind  is  the  infallible  standard  upon 
which  each  proposed  solution  can  be  measured. 
When  George  Rogers  Clark,  in  Kentucky,  decided 
to  drive  out  the  English  from  the  northwest,  to 
capture  Vincennes  and  Kaskaskia,  make  friends 
of  the  Indians,  and  thus  wrest  that  whole  region 
from  the  control  of  the  English,  he  had  a  well-set, 
single  purpose  in  his  mind.  All  his  later  actions 
consist  of  a  close  series  of  problems  which  he  solved, 
one  after  another,  in  working  out  this  purpose.  The 
teacher  who  handles  this  story  orally  with  fourth  or 
fifth  grade  children,  should  make  these  problems  the 
wrestling  grounds  of  thought,  the  very  centres  of 
interest,  so  that  by  the  time  they  get  through  with 
Clark  they  will  have  experienced  his  hardships  and 
triumphed  in  his  success. 

To  get  such  a  close  causal  connection  of  facts  as 
is  here  implied,  the  evidence  on  the  main  topics  of 
the  story  must  be  full  and  circumstantial.  No  brief 
summary  or  outline  of  facts  will  serve  the  purpose. 
Like  General  Grant  at  Vicksburg,  we  must  settle 
down  before  these  strongholds  of  thought  and  fight 
it  out,  if  it  takes  all  summer.  In  solving  historical 
problems  it  is  necessary  to  see  clearly  the  geographi- 


^&.ft«\^fot 
nr          up 


72  SPECIAL   METHOD   IN   HISTORY 

cal  basis,  the  physical  facts  which  condition  the 
action.  This  requires  a  keen  play  of  the  imagination 
in  imaging  the  situations.  It  illustrates  the  close 
relationship  between  history  and  geography  or  physi- 
cal conditions.  In  these  situations  the  teacher  need 
not  be  afraid  of  wasting  time  upon  details.  The 
poet  and  the  novelist  have  the  wisdom  to  see  that 
at  such  junctures  as  these,  full  descriptive  detail  is 
all-important,  absolutely  indispensable. 

We  return  now  to  the  question  whether  children 
can  think  or  no^.  We  are  inclined  to  assert  that  the 
power  to  think  and  to  reason  out  conclusions  in  the 
case  of  children  depends  upon  their  power  to  under- 
stand the  surrounding  circumstances.  Even  little 
children  in  the  family  and  in  the  kindergarten  reason 
correctly  within  the  sphere  of  their  positive  knowl- 
edge. They  often  surprise  us  with  their  power  to 
draw  correct  conclusions  before  they  can  speak 
plainly.  One  ground  why  we  are  prone  to  deny 
reasoning  power  to  children  is  because  they  cannot 
reason  about  those  things  upon  which  grown  persons 
reason.  The  trouble  is  that  children  memorize  easily, ' 
and  are  often  required  to  memorize  things  which  they  f/Y 
lo  not  understand.  Upon  these  things  they  can- 
reason.  Not  even  educated  adults  could  reason 
upon  such  a  basis.  But  children  can  reason  very 
intelligently  about  all  matters  of  thoroughly  familiar 
and  interesting  knowledge.  The  fact  is  that  in  the 
family  we  require  of  children  that  they  exercise  their 


ORAL  TREATMENT  OF  HISTORY   STORIES          73 

reason  up  to  the  limit  of  their  clear  knowledge.  Our 
own  opinion  is  that  tfce  reasoning  power  grows  and 
keeps  pace  with  the  development  of  the  other  powersL 
or,  at  least,  much  more  nearly  so  than  the  school- 
master has  supposed.  Indeed,  if  things  fail  to  ap- 
peal to  a  childVreason  and  good  judgment,  he  fails 
tjo  have  an  interest  injhem. 

The  effort  to  reason  out  situations  and  results, 
such  as  we  have  illustrated  in  the  history  stories, 
deepens  the  interest  and  causes  these  stories  to  take 
a  very  strong  hold  upon  the  mind.  Such  work  takes 
more  time,  but  it  gives  a  much  clearer  understanding 
and  produces  a  much  more  lasting  effect.  Even  a 
few  stories  treated  in  this  way  will  bring  the  children 
to  the  point  of  understanding  what  history  really  is, 
and  how  it  ought  to  be  studied.  The  mere  memoriz- 
ing of  the  same  lessons  out  of  books  can  never  pro- 
duce this  result 

We  ask  children  to  solve  problems  in  arithmetic 
where  certain  facts  are  given  and  the  child  is  to  put 
them  together,  and,  by  a  process  of  reasoning,  work 
his  way  to  another  fact  or  conclusion.  The  arith- 
metic would  be  worthless,  or  nearly  so,  without  this 
sort  of  training  in  reason.  But  we  have  seen  that 
suitable  history  stories  for  children  are  just  as  full  of 
problems  as  an  arithmetic,  only  we  have  been  accus-  . 
tomed  to  give  the  answers  instead  of  the  problems.  // 
In  the  nature  of  the  case  the  historical  problems  have 
much  greater  intrinsic  interest  than  those  of  arith- 


74  SPECIAL  METHOD  IN  HISTORY 

metic.  It  is  now  generally  admitted  that  history, 
properly  taught,  gives  a  fine  cultivation  to  a  very 
profitable  kind  of  reasoning.  It  is  also  a  kind  of 
reasoning  along  lines  of  probability,  which  mathe- 
matics cannot  furnish,  but  which  common  life  daily 
demands. 

A  text-book  cannot  treat  history  in  this  way.  It  can 
simply  present  the  cold  facts  and  leave  the  student  to 
think  or  not  to  think,  as  he  chooses.  It  gives  simply 
answers,  not  problems.  The  teacher  in  oral  instruc- 
tion must  supply  this  vital  deficiency.  He  must  bring 
the  child  up  against  problems  and  allow  him  a  chance 
to  think  about  them  seriously. 

The  Development  Process  of  Teaching 

If  the  text-book  cannot  supply  this  kind  of  teach- 
ing, this  setting  of  problems,  this  thought-struggle 
with  difficult  situations,  the  teacher  may  step  in  to 
supplement  and  invigorate  the  work  of  the  books. 
But  this  so-called  development  method  will  seem  to 
many  teachers  a  poor  makeshift  or  even  perversion 
of  historical  teaching,  on  the  ground  that  the  history 
of  the  past  cannot  be  drawn  out  of  a  child's  mind. 
History,  they  say,  is  a  positive  body  of  facts,  not 
dependent  upon  a  child's  thinking  or  experiences. 
But  in  saying  that  this  development  process  is  pecu- 
liarly appropriate  to  introductory  history,  there  is  no 
pretence  that  the  historical  facts  can  be  elaborated 


ORAL  TREATMENT  OF   HISTORY   STORIES          75 

out  of  the  child's  mind.  In  the  example  given  above 
the  facts  and  conditions  surrounding  the  actor  are 
clearly  presented  by  the  teacher,  and,  with  these 
things  plainly  in  mind,  a  child  is  called  upon  to  show 
how  the  present  emergency  is  to  be  met.  The  aims  i  ^ 
and  problems  already  discussed  are  of  this  thought- 
producing  character.  It  is  for  the  teacher  to  centre  * 
the  thought  upon  the  pivotal  question.  Good  oral 
instruction  consists  largely  in  getting  the  preliminary 
facts  before  the  children,  so  as  to  produce  thoughtful- 
ness  in  answering  pivotal  questions. 

In  the  midst  of  the  effort  to  interpret  new  situa- 
tions, still  another  phase  of  development  instruction 
of  equal  importance  with  that  of  problem-solving  is 
found.  It  is,  namely,  the  effort  to  bring  the  subject 
discussed  into  the  closest  contact  with  the  child's  pre- 
vious experience.  In  short,  he  should  be  taught  to 
utilize,  as  far  as  possible,  all  the  resources  which  his 
life's  experiences  have  accumulated.  To  keep  a  child 
constantly  at  work  revising  and  reorganizing  his  ex- 
rjeriences  as  a  means  of  interpreting  or  assimilating 
new  knowledge,  is  one  of  the  most  serious  and  fruit- 
ful lines  of  effort  open  to  the  teacher. 

It  may  be  said,  usually,  that  a  child  possesses  in  his 
accumulated  experiences  the  facts  which,  if  properly 
focused  upon  the  problem,  will  help  him  to  its  inter- 
pretation. The  fires  which  he  has  kindled  on  some 
picnic  in  the  woods  will  help  him  to  picture  the  camp- 
fires  of  explorers.  The  bows  and  arrows  and  wooden 


76  SPECIAL  METHOD   IN   HISTORY 

guns  which  he  has  used  in  sham  or  real  battles  on  the 
playground  will  serve  him  in  good  stead  for  explaining 
greater  conflicts. 

\  But_in_  many  cases  he  is  not  made  conscious^  these 
pose  connections  between  his  own  knowledge^  and 
Ithe  present  difficulty.  He  stands  in  blank  wonder 
or  confusion  before  the  topic.  The  teacher  must 
come  to  the  rescue  and  set  up  a  line  of  communica- 
tion between  a  point  in  his  past  experience  and  the 
present  emergency.  The  jroper  question,  perhaps, 
needs  to  be  dropped  into  his  mind,  and  a  flash  of 
intelligence-  yjce.  an  electric  spark  is  soon  evidence 
Qi_theiJ3£fi_£Qnnection  bej-wppfl  his 


present.      The  teacher  who  is  apt  in  the  choice  of 
such  questions,  and  who   is   constantly  probing  anj 
sljrrinf  among  a  child's  previous  thoughts  and  Apings. 
thus  causing  him  to  use  independently  his  store  of 
knowledge,  is  in  so  far  at  least  a  good  teacher.     No  J, 
better  mental  habit  can  ever  be  established  in  a  child  /  '. 
than  that  of  falling  back  upon  his  own  resources  in/ 
emergencies. 

In  arithmetic  a  teacher  observes  unmistakably  that 
a  child's  failure  is  his  inability  to  bring  to  bear  upon 
the  new  problem  facts  or  principles  previously  mas- 
tered. The  teacher  must  cause  the  child  to  recall  a 
fact  from  some  table  in  compound  numbers,  or  the 
previous  process  of  changing  fractions  to  a  common 
fractional  unit.  It  is  a  commonplace  experience  with 
teachers  in  arithmetic  to  find  children  failing  in  that 


ORAL  TREATMENT   OF   HISTORY   STORIES          77 

subject  because  they  do  not  think  clearly  the  condi- 
tions of  a  problem  as  based  upon  previous  knowl- 
edge. In  a  logical  subject  like  arithmetic  this  defect 
is  very  apparent. 

But    for    the    interpretation^^flL-Jiistorical    facts^. 
teachers    are,  slow    to    pe.r££Jy£    that  children   are 
upon  their   previous    knowledge. 


They  possess  great  store  of  interpretative  experiences 
in  their  home  life  and  labors,  in  their  games  and 
struggles  on  the  playground,  in  their  observations  of 
people,  trades,  and  occupations,  in  travel  and  sight- 
seeing, and  in  all  varieties  of  intercourse  by  which 
they  become  acquainted  with  people,  their  disposi- 
tions and  character.  A  good  teacher  will  get  at 
these  events  and  heartfelt  experiences  in  previous 
child  life,  will  unearth  these  treasures  and  put  them 
into  circulation.  In  the  midst  of  the  struggle  of 
thought  in  the  classroom  he  will  drop  the  pointed 
question  which  causes  a  child  to  show  a  flash  of  in- 
telligence and  connect  up  with  his  past.  Many  people 
never  learn  to  do  this  kind  of  thinking,  possibly  be- 
cause the  schools  do  so  little  of  it.  Some  teachers 
may  be  slow  to  believe  that  a  child's  experiences  are 
the  materials  with  which  to  interpret  historical 
events.  But  any  boy  or  girl  accustomed  to  ride 
horses  will  put  a  vivid  meaning  into  Alexander's 
taming  of  Bucephalus,  or  Washington  mounting  his 
mother's  favorite  colt.  The  games  of  boys  and  girls 
on  the  playground  have  made  them  acquainted  with 


78  SPECIAL  METHOD   IN   HISTORY 

those  who  are  bold  and  fearless  or  timid  and  cow- 
ardly, with  harsh  or  selfish  children  or  with  those 
who  are  kind  and  generous.  These  and  other  fa- 
miliar classes  of  people  they  meet  again  among  the 
actors  in  history.  A  boy  on  the  playground  often 
needs  as  much  courage  as  he  will  ever  find  use  for 
as  a  man  on  the  battle-field,  though  he  be  a  profes- 
sional soldier. 

If  these  things  be  so,  the  teacher  must  be  an  ex- 
pert in  child  things,  in  the  lore  of  childhood  days 
and  events.  Perhaps  neither  College  nor  Normal 
School  supply  this  kind  of  knowledge.  It  is  none 
the  less  one  of  the  chief  requisites  of  a  teacher. 
>  Each  child,  family,  or  neighborhood  has  jilso  its  pe- 
culiaxjorms  of  experience,  so  that  a  teacher  in  any 
class  needs  to  be,  to  some  extent,  a  local,  a  family, 
or  child  historian. 

These  things  give  the  reason  why  children  learn- 
ing merely  from  books  often  memorize  without  in- 
telligent understanding.  For  many  children  Jt_Jg 
"7  jt  e^sier^to_memgrize_  than  to  thinkj^gr^to^reason  out 
results.  In  fact,  children  are  often  not  made  con- 
scious of  their  power  to  interpret  new  lessons  on  the 
basis  of  what  they  know.  Oral  instruction  in  the 
hands  of  an  intelligent  teacher  has  here  a  fruitful 
field.  It  is  not  claimed  that  teachers  who  use  text- 
books are  regardless  of  this  kind  of  training,  but  it 
may  be  truthfully  said  that  text-book  work  tends 
toward  mere  memory  drill,  while  oral  and  develop- 


ORAL  TREATMENT  OF  HISTORY   STORIES          79 

ment  lessons  tend  to  greater  thoughtfulness  and  self- 
activity. 

Now  the  stories  which  children  study  shon|d_  h^_  N  ^ 
those  which  they  can  interpret  on  Jthe^  basis  of  ex- 
perience. The  simple  surroundings  of  the  pioneers 
and  of  the  early  historical  characters  of  Europe  have 
this  objective  character.  They  are  easily  imaged  in 
their  relations  to  one  another.  Any  child  who  has 
been  in  the  woods  and  fields,  who  has  noticed  streams, 
marshes,  thickets,  and  rough  regions  of  country,  who 
has  seen  nature  in  storm  and  sunshine  and  through- 
out the  seasons  —  such  a  child  possesses  in  his  own 
experience  most  of  the  fundamental  conditions  that 
surround  the  heroes  of  early  story  and  pioneer  life. 
There  is  also  a  distinct  advantage  in  bringing  topics 
of  present  study  into  comparison  with  those  of 
earlier  lessons.  This  has  not  been  very  customary 
in  history  instruction,  but  the  biographies  used  in 
the  fourth  and  fifth  grades  are  especially  adapted 
to  this  sort  of  review.  The  history  stories,  as  impor- 
tant units  of  study,  have  so  many  points  of  striking 
resemblance  to  one  another  that  such  comparisons 
are  fruitful  in  results.  Children  in  this  way  not  only 
learn  to  interpret  new  stories,  but  they  also  get  a 
stronger  mastery  and  appreciation  of  the  older  famil- 
iar ones.  A  few  examples  of  such  comparisons  will 
be  presented. 

The  personal,  experiences  and  character  of  pioneer 
leaders  may  be  brought  side  by  side,  as  in  the  case 


80  SPECIAL  METHOD  IN  HISTORY 

of  Champlain  and  John  Smith.  In  how  many  points 
were  their  experiences  alike  ?  Both  were  explorers 
passing  up  great  rivers  in  boats  or  canoes  and  making 
maps  of  new  countries.  Both  cruised  also  along  the 
Atlantic  coast,  examining  in  part  the  same  regions. 
Both  were  in  constant  dealings  with  the  Indians,  as 
friend  or  enemy.  Both  suffered  the  severest  hard- 
ships and  wounds.  Both  were  governors  of  little 
settlements,  and  had  to  struggle  for  food  and  pro- 
tection, and  against  disease  and  starvation.  Which 
of  these  men  passed  through  the  more  trying  diffi- 
culties ?  The  details  of  the  stories  will  suggest  sev- 
eral other  interesting  likenesses  and  contrasts. 

A  similar  comparison  may  be  set  up  between 
Columbus  and  Magellan  in  their  great  voyages.  In 
what  ways  did  they  have  similar  experiences  at  the 
courts  in  Portugal  and  Spain  ?  Compare  Columbus' 
first  passage  across  the  Atlantic  with  Magellan's 
voyage  across  the  Pacific.  How  do  these  two  voy- 
ages compare  as  to  distance  and  hardship  endured  ? 
Which  had  the  greater  difficulties  in  controlling  his 
men  ?  In  one  respect  they  both  aimed  at  exactly 
the  same  result.  What  was  it?  What  was  the  re- 
ward promised  to  each  of  them  for  his  service  ? 
Which  was  the  greater  achievement,  the  voyage  of 
Columbus  or  the  voyage  of  Magellan  ?  In  making 
such  a  comparison  in  the  class  many  other  interest- 
ing points  of  resemblance  and  difference  will  be 
called  to  mind.  Maps  of  the  world  will  have  to  be 


ORAL  TREATMENT  OF  HISTORY   STORIES          8 1 

examined  to  settle  disputed  points,  and  the  leading 
facts  in  the  lives  of  both  these  men  will  be  brought 
out  with  greater  distinctness. 

Fremont's  great  exploring  trip  across  the  mountains 
to  Salt  Lake  and  California  may  be  compared  with 
the  journey  of  Lewis  and  Clark  up  the  Missouri 
River  and  over  the  Rocky  Mountains  to  Oregon. 
Compare  the  passage  of  Lewis  and  Clark  across 
the  high  ridge  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  with  the 
passage  of  Fremont  over  the  Sierra  Nevada  in  winter. 
What  was  the  purpose  of  each  of  these  expeditions  ? 
Compare  their  experiences  with  the  Indians,  and 
their  boat  journeys  on  rivers  and  lakes.  What 
parts  of  their  journeys  touched  the  same  regions, 
rivers,  etc.  Compare,  on  the  map,  the  length 
of  these  two  journeys  and  the  physical  difficulties 
overcome. 

A  comparison  of  the  early  life  of  Washington  in 
Virginia  with  the  early  life  of  Lincoln  in  Indiana 
and  Illinois,  will  bring  out  some  interesting  contrasts 
under  somewhat  similar  conditions  of  life. 

Compare  CorteY  conquest  of  Mexico  with  George 
Rogers  Clark's  campaign  in  the  northwest,  for  the 
capture  of  Vincennes  and  Kaskaskia.  How  did  they 
raise  their  armies  ?  In  what  ways  did  they  treat 
with  Indians  ?  How  do  they  compare  in  their  courage 
and  hardihood  in  meeting  and  overcoming  difficulties  ? 
What  were  the  results  which  sprang  from  the  con- 
quest in  both  cases,  and  which  were  the  more  impor- 


82  SPECIAL  METHOD  IN   HISTORY 

tant  ?  Compare  the  present  population  and  wealth  of 
the  northwest  with  that  of  Mexico. 

In  order  to  suggest  the  scope  and  variety  of  such 
comparisons,  we  will  mention  a  few  additional  ex- 
amples. 

Note  the  different  places  and  times  where  attacks 
were  made  by  Indians  upon  palisaded  forts,  such 
as  Boonesborough,  Watauga,  Detroit,  and  others. 
Compare  the  personal  exploits  of  such  men  as  Robert- 
son, Clark,  Smith,  Cortes,  Washington,  Sevier,  and 
others.  Judge  them  according  to  shrewdness  and 
presence  of  mind  in  danger.  Compare  the  English 
with  the  French,  and  with  the  Spanish  explorers  and 
settlers.  The  long  canoe  voyages  on  the  rivers 
and  lakes,  by  such  men  as  Hennepin,  Joliet,  Lewis, 
and  Clark  and  La  Salle,  are  interesting  topics  for  com- 
parison. The  battles  fought,  the  defeats  or  victories 
which  followed,  and  the  results  to  which  these  expedi- 
tions led,  may  be  measured  one  upon  another.  Place 
the  lives  of  leading  men,  or  important  events,  side  by 
side  to  see  what  common  lessons  they  teach  and  what 
similar  results  follow,  and  one  will  be  astonished  at  the 
number  of  striking  resemblances  and  bold  contrasts 
brought  out.  Such  comparisons  train  children  into 
valuable  habits  of  thought.  They  are  a  perpetual 
test  to  the  memory  of  previous  knowledge.  They 
make  reviews  more  instructive  than  the  first  acquisi- 
tion of  facts.  They  bring  out  new  and  interesting 
points  of  view,  and  produce  thoughtfulness  in  judging 


ORAL  TREATMENT  OF  HISTORY  STORIES          83 

men  and  events.  Much  time  is  required  for  this  kind 
of  work,  and  not  many  stories  can  be  treated  in  this 
way ;  but  it  will  pay  to  do  well  whatever  is  attempted, 
even  though  the  stories  be  few  in  number. 

During  the  latter  part  of  the  fourth  year,  children 
should  begin  to  read  some  of  the  simpler  stories  of 
American  biography,  such  as  Eggleston's  "  Stories  of 
American  Life  and  Adventure,"  Johonnot's  "  Stories 
of  our  Country,"  "  Pioneers  of  the  Revolution,"  and 
Hart's  "  Colonial  Children."  These  are  simple 
enough  for  children  of  this  age.  Into  such  book- 
stories  they  may  put  the  same  realistic  interpretation 
which  the  previous  oral  treatment  has  taught  them. 
The  teacher  should  be  able  to  supervise  such  read- 
ings, and  thus  encourage  children  to  a  wider  scope 
of  knowledge.  It  is  fortunate  to  have  this  outlet  for 
the  superabundant  energies  of  the  brighter  pupils. 
In  their  leisure  time  at  home  and  at  school,  they  may 
profitably  read  such  books.  Possibly  the  teacher 
may  find  time  to  talk  with  them  about  these  read- 
ings. 

Children  of  the  fifth  grade,  with  their  increasing 
mastery  of  books,  may  greatly  enlarge  the  range  of 
this  supplementary  reading.  The  thorough  oral 
treatment  of  stories  is  continued  in  the  fifth  grade. 
They  should  be  eye-openers  as  to  the  true  method 
of  thinking  and  realizing  history.  There  are  quite  a 
number  of  excellent  story-books  of  American  history 
which  bright  children  of  the  fifth  grade  can  read 


84  SPECIAL  METHOD  IN  HISTORY 

and  thus  strengthen  and  enlarge  their  conceptions  ot 
life  in  the  early  heroic  period  of  American  history. 
The  knowledge  thus  acquired,  in  a  hearty  and  whole- 
souled  way,  will  be  of  great  value  in  the  later  study 
of  history.  In  such  stories  as  these,  children  gather 
the  basal,  elementary  facts  of  history,  the  concrete 
stuff  out  of  which  history  is  made,  and  which  our 
text-books,  on  account  of  lack  of  space,  do  not 
contain. 

The  use  of  maps  and  blackboard  sketches  in  the 
first  two  years  (fourth  and  fifth  grades)  should  be 
constant.  There  is  surely  no  way  of  understanding 
these  historical  tales  without  good  maps.  Both 
teacher  and  pupils  should  acquire  freedom  in  sketch- 
ing local  or  larger  maps,  and  in  diagraming  situations 
on  the  blackboard.  They  serve  the  double  purpose 
of  a  means  to  clearer  comprehension  and  of  an  out- 
ward expression  of  thought  It  is  not  very  difficult 
to  get  children  into  the  habit  of  map-making  and 
map-interpretation,  if  only  the  teacher  sketches 
freely.  The  physical  difficulties  imposed  by  rivers, 
deserts,  lakes,  mountains,  forests,  and  marshes, 
should  be  made  to  stand  out  in  the  child's  thought 
by  means  of  maps,  pictures,  diagrams,  descriptions, 
and  comparisons  of  every  sort.  We  are  even  willing 
to  set  free  the  constructive  activities  of  children  to 
reproduce  as  many  of  the  objects  of  interest  in  the 
story  as  they  can  find  tools  and  materials  to  shape. 
This  is  a  natural  impulse  of  children,  and  has  been 


ORAL  TREATMENT  OF  HISTORY  STORIES          85 

generally  looked  upon  as  a  piece  of  youthful  play  or 
nonsense ;  but  we  are  now  beginning  to  see  in  it  the 
best  educative  forces  of  the  child  actually  at  work. 
The  building  of  miniature  forts,  log  huts,  palisaded 
enclosures,  caves,  breastworks,  canoes,  boats,  and 
ships,  the  use  of  tools,  weapons,  and  instruments,  the 
dress  and  outfit  of  the  explorers,  should  be  brought 
into  requisition  as  far  as  circumstances  permit.  The 
things  which  cannot  be  made,  can  be  represented  in 
collections  of  pictures  and  in  such  drawings  as  chil- 
dren make. 

Our  conclusion  is  that  problem  solving  and  develop- 
ment work  are  legitimate  forms  of  oral  instruction  in 
early  history  study.  In  order  to  explain  more  defi- 
nitely these  forms  of  instruction,  the  following  story 
of  George  Rogers  Clark  is  rendered  in  full,  and  the 
method  of  treatment  is  given  at  some  length.  A 
somewhat  complete  series  of  the  early  American 
stories  is  given  in  the  three  volumes  of  "  American 
Pioneer  History  Stories,"  for  these  grades. 

GEORGE   ROGERS  CLARK 

AUTHORITIES.  —  American  Commonwealths,  "  Indiana."     Roosevelt, 
"The  Winning  of  the  West" 

More  than  a  hundred  years  ago,  Clark,  a  young 
man  from  Virginia,  who  had  settled  in  Kentucky, 
formed  the  plan  of  driving  the  English  out  of 
Indiana  and  Illinois,  and,  by  making  friends  of  the 


86  SPECIAL  METHOD   IN   HISTORY 

Indians,  of  bringing  over  the  whole  of  this  region 
to  the  side  of  the  Americans.  Clark  had  been  among 
the  people  of  Kentucky  a  year  or  two,  was  a  skilful 
hunter  and  woodsman,  and  had  become  a  bold  leader 
of  war-parties  against  the  Indians.  He  was  only 
about  twenty-five  years  old,  but  he  decided  to  under- 
take the  raising  of  an  army  of  Virginians  and  Ken- 
tuckians,  to  go  in  boats  down  the  Ohio,  capture 
Vincennes  and  Kaskaskia  from  the  British,  and 
then  force  the  Indians  to  be  friends  to  the  Ameri- 
cans. Clark  had  no  money  to  hire  soldiers  or  to  keep 
up  an  army,  and  the  men,  unless  well  paid,  would 
be  unwilling  to  go  into  such  a  dangerous  under- 
taking. 

It  was  during  the  Revolutionary  War,  and  the 
English,  assisted  by  the  Indian  tribes,  had  strong 
forts  at  Vincennes,  in  Indiana,  at  Kaskaskia,  Illinois, 
and  at  Detroit,  Michigan.  At  these  places  the  Ind- 
ians received  guns,  ammunition,  and  white  leaders, 
and  were  encouraged  by  the  British  to  make  war  upon 
the  American  people  who  were  settled  in  Kentucky, 
against  men,  women,  and  children.  For  it  was  the 
practice  of  the  Indians  in  attacking  the  settlers  in 
Kentucky,  to  kill  or  capture  men,  women,  and  chil- 
dren. If  they  were  not  tomahawked  or  scalped, 
they  were  carried  away  to  the  Indian  villages  north 
of  the  Ohio  River,  and  made  slaves  to  the  Indians. 

Clark  decided  first  to  go  back  over  the  mountains 
to  Virginia  to  see  Patrick  Henry  and  his  council. 


THE  STORY  OF  CLARK  87 

Kentucky  at  this  time  belonged  to  Virginia.  He 
travelled  on  horseback  through  the  woods  and  over 
mountains,  starting  October  I,  1777.  He  was  a 
month  in  reaching  his  home,  having  travelled  620 
miles  through  the  roughest  country.  Meeting  the 
governor  he  persuaded  him  that  his  proposed  plan 
was  a  good  one  and  was  promised  help.  He  was 
given  $6000  in  paper  money,  and  each  man  who 
should  join  his  army  was  promised  three  hundred 
acres  of  land.  Clark  was  made  a  colonel  of  militia 
and  given  permission  to  raise  an  army  of  seven 
companies  of  fifty  men  each. 

Clark  now  returned  over  the  mountains  toward 
Pittsburg.  He  was  well  known  along  the  Monon- 
gahela  River,  and  began  to  raise  recruits  for  his 
army  from  the  settlers  and  backwoodsmen  of  this 
district.  At  Red  Stone  Old  Fort  (Brownsville)  on 
the  Monongahela,  twenty  miles  above  Pittsburg, 
he  embarked  his  men  on  flat-boats,  called  "broad- 
horns,"  and  floated  down  to  Pittsburg.  Here  his 
supply  of  powder  and  provisions  was  put  on  board. 
A  number  of  hardy  settlers  and  their  families  joined 
him  to  form  a  settlement  near  the  falls  of  the  Ohio. 
At  Wheeling  more  supplies  were  taken  on,  and  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Kanawha  a  company  of  recruits 
joined  him.  With  his  boats,  men,  and  supplies  he 
proceeded  to  an  island  just  above  the  falls  of  the 
Ohio.  Here  he  cleared  a  place  for  a  palisade  and 
blockhouse,  and  established  the  settlers  with  their 


88  SPECIAL  METHOD   IN   HISTORY 

families.  Some  additional  men  joined  him  here, 
and  he  spent  part  of  his  time  drilling  his  little  army. 
The  men  were  not  in  uniform  but  wore  the  hunting 
shirt,  leggings,  and  moccasins  of  the  backwoodsmen. 
They  were  armed  with  the  long,  heavy,  flintlock 
rifles,  and  with  hatchets  and  long  knives  in  their 
belts.  Clark  felt  that  the  time  had  now  come  for 
him  to  explain  to  the  men*  his  full  plan.  He  called 
them  together  and  told  them  for  the  first  tirrie  that, 
he  proposed  to  cdpture1  Vincgnnes,  and  Kaskaskia. 
At  this  some  were  frightened  and  a  few  from  Ten- 
nessee decided  to  return  home,  but  Clark  refused 
to  let  them  go.  At  night,  however,  they  escaped 
the  guard,  waded  to  the  Kentucky  shore,  and  took 
to  the  woods.  In  the  morning  Clark  sent  some  of 
his  more  trusty  men  after  them,  but  recaptured  only 
a  few  of  them. 

With  the  rest  of  the  men,  153  in  number,  Clark 
now  made  ready  to  set  out  for  the  capture  of  Kas- 
kaskia and  Vincennes.  He  saw  that  it  was  a  very 
dangerous  undertaking,  but  for  that  very  reason  he 
liked  it  the  more.  Getting  into  their  boats  they 
plunged  down  over  the  rapids,  and  putting  the  men 
to  the  oars  they  hastened  night  and  day  till  their  boats 
reached  an  island  at  the  mouth  of  the  Tennessee 
River.  Landing  here,  Clark  met  a  small  party  of 
American  hunters  who  had  just  lately  come  from 
Kaskaskia.  They  told  him  that  the  fort  was  strong 
and  in  good  repair,  the  soldiers  of  the  garrison  well 


THE  STORY  OF  CLARK  89 

trained,  and  the  commander  was  watching  the  Missis- 
sippi River  for  any  hostile  force  that  might  come  up 
to  capture  the  place.  The  French  fur  traders  and 
boatmen  upon  the  river  were  on  the  watch  to  give 
the  commander  notice  of  any  war  party. 

Clark,  however,  did  not  intend  to  go  up  the  river, 
but  to  march  across  the  country  and  to  capture  the 
fort  by  surprise.  The  hunters  thought  this  would 
be  possible.  They  joined  him  eagerly,  and  promised 
to  guide  him  by  the  shortest  route  to  the  fort. 
Clark  determined  to  march  at  once  against  Kas- 
kaskia.  Taking  their  new  allies  for  guides,  the 
little  army  of  less  than  two  hundred  men  started 
north  across  the  wilderness,  scouts  being  scattered 
well  ahead  of  them,  both  to  kill  game  and  to  see 
that  their  march  was  not  discovered  by  any  strag- 
gling Frenchman  or  Indian.  The  first  fifty  miles 
led  through  a  tangled  and  pathless  forest,  the  toil 
of  travelling  being  great.  They  mired  in  the  swamps 
and  lost  their  way.  After  that,  the  work  was  less 
difficult,  as  they  got  out  among  the  prairies.  But 
on  these  great  level  meadows  they  had  to  take 
extra  care  to  avoid  being  seen.  Once  the  chief 
guide  lost  his  way,  and  the  whole  party  was  thrown 
into  confusion.  Clark  was  very  angry,  but  in  a 
couple  of  hours  the  guide  found  his  bearings,  and 
led  them  straight  on  their  course.  Clark,  with  his 
army,  moved  along  so  quickly  and  quietly  that  no 
one  was  expecting  him. 


90  SPECIAL  METHOD  IN  HISTORY 

On  the  evening  of  the  fourth  of  July  they  reached 
the  river  Kaskaskia,  within  three  miles  of  the  town, 
which  lay  on  the  further  bank.  They  kept  in  the 
woods  till  after  it  grew  dusk  and  then  marched 
silently  to  the  little  farm  on  the  hither  side.  The 
family  were  taken  prisoners,  and  from  them  Clark 
learned  that  some  days  before  the  townspeople  had 
been  alarmed  at  the  rumor  of  a  possible  attack,  but 
they  were  now  off  their  guard.  There  were  a  great 
many  men  in  the  town,  mostly  French,  the  Indians 
having  for  the  most  part  left.  The  commander  had 
two  or  three  times  as  many  men  under  him  as  Clark, 
and  he  would  certainly  make  a  good  fight,  if  not 
taken  by  surprise.  It  was  Clark's  boldness  and  the 
speed  of  his  movements  which  gave  him  a  chance 
of  success,  with  the  odds  so  heavily  against  him. 

Getting  boats,  Clark  ferried  his  men  across  the 
stream  under  cover  of  the  darkness  and  in  silence. 
He  then  approached  Kaskaskia  in  the  night,  dividing 
his  force  into  two  divisions,  one  being  spread  out  to 
surround  the  town  so  that  none  might  escape,  while 
he  himself  led  the  other  up  to  the  walls  of  the  fort. 
Inside  the  fort  the  lights  were  lit,  and  through  the 
windows  came  the  sound  of  violins.  The  officers 
of  the  fort  had  given  a  ball,  and  the  mirth-loving 
French,  young  men  and  girls,  were  dancing  and 
revelling  within,  while  the  sentinels  had  left  their 
posts.  One  of  the  captives  showed  Clark  a  pos- 
tern gate  by  the  river  side,  and  through  this  he 


THE  STORY  OF  CLARK  91 

entered  the  fort,  having  placed  his  men  at  the 
entrance.  Advancing  to  the  great  hall  where  the 
dance  was  held,  he  leaned  silently  with  folded  arms 
against  the  door-post,  looking  at  the  dancers.  An 
Indian,  lying  on  the  floor  of  the  entry,  gazed  intently 
on  the  stranger's  face  as  the  light  from  the  torches 
within  flickered  across  it,  and  suddenly  sprang  to  his 
feet,  uttering  the  unearthly  warwhoop.  Instantly  the 
dancing  ceased,  while  the  men  ran  towards  the  door. 
But  Clark,  standing  unmoved  and  with  unchanged 
face,  bade  them  grimly  to  go  on  with  their  dancing, 
but  to  remember  that  they  now  danced  under  Virginia 
and  not  under  Great  Britain.  At  the  same  time  his 
men  burst  into  the  fort  and  seized  the  officers,  includ- 
ing the  commander,  Rocheblanc,  who  was  in  bed. 

Immediately  Clark  had  every  street  secured  and 
sent  runners  through  the  town,  ordering  the  people 
to  keep  close  to  their  houses  on  pain  of  death. 
Before  daybreak  he  had  them  all  disarmed.  The 
French  of  the  town  were  greatly  frightened.  The 
unlooked-for  and  mysterious  approach  of  the  back- 
woodsmen, their  sudden  attack,  their  wild  and 
uncouth  appearance,  combined  to  fill  the  French- 
men with  fear.  They  believed  also  that  the  Ken- 
tuckians  were  harsh  and  cruel  men.  Clark  did  not 
want  to  injure  the  French,  but  wished,  rather,  to 
make  fast  friends  of  them.  The  next  morning  he 
called  together  their  chief  men  from  the  village  and 
told  them  that  he  desired  in  no  way  to  injure,  but  to 


92  SPECIAL  METHOD  IN   HISTORY 

treat  them  as  brothers  and  give  them  all  the  rights 
of  Americans.  The  French  were  so  delighted  with 
this  speech  that  they  passed  at  once  from  despair 
to  the  greatest  joy,  scattered  flowers  through  the 
streets,  sang  and  danced.  The  other  French  settle- 
ments along  the  river  in  Illinois  heard  with  pleas- 
ure of  this  good  treatment  and  became  at  once  the 
firm  friends  of  Clark.  The  French  were  Catholics. 
When  Gibault,  the  priest,  asked  Clark  whether  the 
Catholic  church  might  be  opened,  the  reply  was 
that,  as  a  commander,  he  had  nothing  to  do  with 
the  churches  except  to  protect  them  from  insult, 
and  that  by  the  laws  of  the  Republic,  the  Catholic 
church  had  as  great  privileges  as  any  other. 

But  though  he  had  captured  the  fort  and  made 
friends  of  the  French,  Clark  was  still  surrounded  by 
the  most  serious  dangers.  There  were  many  tribes 
of  warlike  Indians  in  Illinois,  Indiana,  and  other  sur- 
rounding states  who  had  long  been  bitterly  hostile  to 
the  Kentuckians.  Their  chiefs  and  warriors  gath- 
ered now  from  far  and  near  to  see  what  had  hap- 
pened at  Kaskaskia,  and  when  they  saw  Clark's  little 
army  they  began  to  show  little  respect  or  fear  of 
him.  His  own  army  was  not  only  small  but,  as  their 
time  of  service  came  to  an  end,  many  of  them  wished 
to  return  home.  His  men  were  naturally  indepen- 
dent and  wilful,  and  he  had  not  the  means  with 
which  to  hire  them  for  longer  service.  Virginia  was 
hundreds  of  miles  away  across  the  mountains  and 


THE  STORY  OF  CLARK  93 

was  fully  occupied  with  the  war  of  the  Revolution,  so 
that  Clark  could  expect  no  help  from  that  quarter. 
The  British  at  Vincennes  and  Detroit  had  much 
larger  forces  and  supplies  than  Clark,  and  they  had 
the  strong  support  of  all  the  Western  tribes  of 
Indians.  Clark  had  not  attacked  Vincennes  on  his 
way  down  the  Ohio,  because  he  feared  it  would  be 
too  strong  for  him. 

Clark  now  set  himself  to  the  task  of  overcoming 
these  difficulties. 

Everything  depended  upon  his  having  a  brave  lit- 
tle army  of  trained  backwoodsmen  with  which  to 
fight  if  necessary.  He  had  four  excellent  captains 
and  he  now  persuaded  one  hundred  of  his  men,  by 
gifts  and  promises,  to  stay  with  him  eight  months 
longer.  The  others,  about  fifty  in  number,  he 
allowed  to  return  to  their  homes.  The  French  now 
learned  from  Clark  that  he  was  about  to  return  to 
the  falls  of  the  Ohio  and  leave  Kaskaskia  to  the 
British.  This  frightened  the  French,  so  that  they 
begged  him  to  stay.  He  finally,  and  with  apparent 
reluctance,  decided  to  remain,  but  required  strong 
promises  of  support  from  the  French,  and  enlisted  a 
large  number  of  young  Frenchmen  in  his  army  and 
distributed  them  among  his  well-trained  backwoods- 
men. He  then  drilled  this  new  army  daily,  till  they 
became  thoroughly  trained.  In  this  way  he  kept 
his  army  as  numerous  and  strong  as  at  first. 

The  British  still  held  a  strong  fort  at  Vincennes 


94  SPECIAL   METHOD   IN   HISTORY 

on  the  Wabash.  Clark  now  wished  to  capture  this 
place,  but  did  not  know  how  strong  it  was,  nor  how 
many  British  soldiers  defended  it.  The  people  liv- 
ing in  the  village  near  the  Vincennes  fort  were  also 
French. 

Clark  now  told  the  French  at  Kaskaskia  that  he 
was  about  to  march  with  his  little  army  to  destroy 
the  fort  and  village  at  Vincennes,  because  they 
belonged  to  and  were  friendly  to  the  English.  But 
the  French  at  Kaskaskia,  who  had  friends  and  kins- 
men at  Vincennes,  begged  him  not  to  do  so.  For  if 
he  would  wait,  two  of  their  best  men,  with  other 
Frenchmen,  would  go  to  Vincennes  and  persuade 
the  French  people  of  the  village  to  desert  the  Eng- 
lish. Clark  agreed  to  this  and  the  two  men,  with 
Gibault,  the  priest,  and  others,  set  out  in  a  boat  for 
Vincennes.  When  they  arrived  they  found  only  a 
few  English  soldiers  at  the  fort,  and  soon  persuaded 
the  French  inhabitants  to  join  Clark.  They  also 
went  to  the  fort  and  compelled  the  men  to  pull  down 
the  English,  and  to  put  up  the  American  flag.  As 
soon  as  this  news  reached  Clark  he  appointed  Cap- 
tain Helm,  one  of  his  best  men,  and  a  few  French 
volunteers  to  go  to  take  possession  of  the  fort  and 
hold  it. 

The  Indians  along  the  Wabash  were  so  much 
astonished  at  the  sudden  change  that  they  began  to 
think  of  joining  Clark.  Tabac  was  an  Indian  chief 
living  on  the  river  below  Vincennes.  Because  his 


THE  STORY  OF  CLARK  95 

tribe  controlled  the  mouth  of  the  river,  he  was  called 
"The  Door  of  the  Wabash."  Clark  sent  word  to 
him  to  join  the  British  or  the  Americans  as  he 
pleased.  After  thinking  it  over  a  few  days,  Tabac 
decided  to  join  the  "  Long  Knives  "  as  he  called  the 
Kentuckians.  After  this  the  other  tribes  along  the 
Wabash  and  around  Vincennes  were  pacified  by 
Helm  and  Clark. 

Clark  now  took  upon  himself  the  greater  task  of 
dealing  with  the  huge  horde  of  savages,  representing 
every  tribe  between  the  Great  Lakes  and  the  Missis- 
sippi, who  had  come  to  Illinois,  some  from  a  distance 
of  five  hundred  miles.  They  wished  to  learn  just 
what  had  happened  and  to  hear  for  themselves  all 
that  the  "  Long  Knives  "  had  to  say.  They  gathered 
to  meet  him  at  Cahokia  (north  of  Kaskaskia),  chiefs 
and  warriors  of  every  grade,  Ottawas,  Chippewas, 
Pottawottomies,  Sacs  and  Foxes,  and  other  tribes. 
The  straggling  streets  of  the  little  town  were 
thronged  with  hundreds  of  dark-browed,  sullen- 
looking  savages.  They  strutted  to  and  fro  in  their 
dirty  finery,  or  lounged  about  the  houses,  inquisitive 
and  insolent,  hardly  concealing  their  thirst  for 
bloodshed  and  plunder. 

Fortunately,  Clark  knew  exactly  how  to  treat 
them.  He  was  always  on  his  guard,  while  seem- 
ingly very  cool  and  confident.  But  on  the  third 
night  a  crowd  of  reckless  warriors  tried  to  force  a 
way  into  the  house  where  he  was  lodging,  and  to 


96  SPECIAL  METHOD   IN   HISTORY 

carry  him  off  as  a  prisoner.  Clark  had  been  suspi- 
cious of  their  purpose  and  was  on  the  lookout.  His 
guards  were  at  hand  and  promptly  seized  the  sav- 
ages. The  townspeople  also  took  the  alarm,  and 
were  in  arms  in  a  couple  of  minutes  in  favor  of 
Clark.  He  instantly  ordered  the  French  militia  to 
put  the  captives,  both  chiefs  and  warriors,  in  irons. 
His  boldness  was  completely  successful.  The  crest- 
fallen prisoners  humbly  begged  his  pardon  and  said 
they  were  only  trying  to  see  whether  the  French 
were  really  the  friends  of  Clark.  They  then  desired 
to  be  released.  Up  to  this  time  Clark  had  treated 
the  Indians  with  great  kindness,  but  he  now  refused 
to  grant  their  request,  and  treated  them  with  scorn 
and  indifference,  even  when  the  chiefs  of  the  other 
tribes  asked  him  to  let  them  go  free.  While  the 
whole  town  was  in  confusion,  Clark  seemed  wholly 
undisturbed,  and  did  not  even  shift  his  lodgings  to 
the  fort  for  safety.  But  he  secretly  filled  a  large 
room  next  to  his  own  with  armed  men,  and  the 
guards  were  kept  ready  for  instant  action.  To  make 
his  pretended  indifference  more  complete,  he  assem- 
bled a  company  of  ladies  and  gentlemen  who  danced 
nearly  the  whole  night.  The  savages  were  much 
perplexed,  and  held  several  councils  among  them- 
selves during  the  night. 

"  Next  morning  Clark  called  all  the  tribes  to  a 
grand  council.  He  then  released  the  captive  chiefs, 
that  he  might  speak  to  them  in  the  presence  of  their 


THE  STORY  OF  CLARK  97 

friends  and  allies.  After  all  the  ceremonies  of 
Indian  etiquette  had  been  finished,  Clark  stood  up  in 
the  ring  of  squatted  warriors,  while  his  riflemen,  in 
travel-worn  hunting-shirts,  clustered  behind  him. 
Taking  the  bloody  war  belt  of  wampum,  he  handed 
it  to  the  chiefs  whom  he  had  taken  captive,  telling 
the  assembled  tribes  that  he  cared  neither  for  their 
treachery  nor  enmity.  He  had  a  right  to  put  them 
to  death,  but  instead  of  this  he  would  escort  them 
outside  the  town,  and  after  three  days  begin  war 
upon  them.  Pointing  to  the  war  belt,  he  challenged 
them  to  see  which  could  make  it  the  more  bloody. 
Now  that  he  had  finished  talking  to  them  he  wished 
them  to  depart  at  once."  All  the  Indian  chiefs, 
including  the  prisoners,  replied  in  turn  that  they 
wished  for  peace  and  were  sorry  that  they  had  ever 
sided  against  him. 

"  Clark  then  rose  again  and  told  them  that  he 
came  not  as  a  counsellor,  but  as  a  warrior ;  not  beg- 
ging for  peace,  but  carrying  in  his  right  hand,  peace, 
in  his  left  hand,  war.  To  those  who  were  friendly 
he  would  be  a  friend,  but  if  they  chose  war,  he  would 
call  from  the  thirteen  council  fires  (thirteen  colonies), 
warriors  so  numerous  that  they  would  darken  the  land. 
At  the  end  of  his  speech  he  offered  them  the  two 
belts  of  war  and  peace.  They  eagerly  took  the  peace 
belt.  But  Clark  declined  to  smoke  the  calumet 
(peace  pipe)  or  to  release  all  his  prisoners,  and  in- 
sisted that  two  of  them  should  be  put  to  death. 


98  SPECIAL   METHOD   IN   HISTORY 

The  Indians  even  consented  to  this,  and  two  of 
their  young  men  were  surrendered  to  him.  Advanc- 
ing they  sat  down  before  him  on  the  floor,  covering 
their  heads  with  blankets  to  receive  the  tomahawk. 
Then  Clark  at  the  last  granted  them  full  pardon 
and  peace,  and  forgave  the  young  men  their  doom. 
The  next  day  after  a  peace  council  there  was  a  feast, 
and  the  friendship  of  the  Indians  was  fully  won. 
Clark  ever  after  had  great  influence  with  them. 
They  admired  his  personal  prowess,  his  oratory,  his 
address  as  a  treaty  maker,  and  the  skill  with  which 
he  led  his  troops.  Long  afterwards,  when  the 
United  States  authorities  were  trying  to  make  trea- 
ties with  the  Indians,  it  was  noticed  that  the  latter 
never  would  speak  to  any  other  white  general  while 
Clark  was  present." 

Clark  had  now  settled  his  affairs  with  the  Indians, 
but  a  still  greater  difficulty  awaited  him.  General 
Hamilton,  the  English  commander  at  Detroit,  knew 
well  how  small  Clark's  army  was.  He  was  a  man  of 
great  energy,  and  immediately  began  to  prepare  an 
expedition  to  recapture  Vincennes  and  drive  Clark 
out  of  Illinois.  French  spies  and  agents  were  sent 
out  by  the  English  at  Detroit,  to  stir  up  the  Indians 
in  Illinois,  Indiana,  and  the  northwest.  Hamilton 
himself  was  to  command  the  main  army  against  Vin- 
cennes. "Throughout  September  every  soul  in 
Detroit  was  busy  from  morning  till  night  mending 
boats,  baking  biscuits,  packing  provisions  in  kegs 


THE  STORY  OF  CLARK  99 

and  bags,  collecting  artillery  stores,  and  in  every 
way  preparing  for  the  expedition.  Fifteen  large 
boats  were  procured,  each  able  to  carry  from  one 
thousand  to  three  thousand  pounds.  These  were  to 
be  loaded  with  ammunition,  food,  clothing,  tents,  and 
especially  with  presents  for  the  Indians.  Cattle  and 
wheels  were  sent  ahead  to  the  most  important  portages 
on  the  route.  A  six-pound  gun  was  also  forwarded." 
Before  starting,  feasts  were  given  to  the  Indian 
tribes,  at  which  oxen  were  roasted  whole  (barbecue), 
while  Hamilton  and  the  chiefs  of  the  French  sang 
the  war  song  in  solemn  council,  and  received  the 
pledges  of  armed  assistance  and  support  from  the 
savages. 

On  October  7  the  expedition  left  Detroit.  Hamil- 
ton started  with  177  whites  (British  regulars,  Cana- 
dian French,  and  Detroit  militia)  and  60  Indians. 
About  260  Indians  joined  him  on  the  way,  so  that 
upon  reaching  Vincennes  his  army  was  500  strong. 
In  sailing  the  boats  across  Lake  Erie  to  reach  the 
mouth  of  the  Maumee  River,  they  were  overtaken  by 
darkness  and  a  strong  gale  and  were  almost  swamped. 
The  waters  of  the  Maumee  were  low  and  the  boats 
were  poled  slowly  up  against  the  current,  reaching 
the  portage,  where  there  was  an  Indian  village,  Octo- 
ber 24.  Here  a  nine-miles  portage  was  made  to  one 
of  the  sources  of  the  Wabash.  This  stream  was  so 
low  that  the  boats  could  not  have  gone  down  it,  had 
it  not  been  for  the  beaver  dam,  four  miles  below 


100  SPECIAL  METHOD   IN  HISTORY 

the  landing  place,  which  backed  up  the  current 
"  A  passage  was  cut  through  the  beaver  dam  to 
let  the  boats  through.  The  traders  and  Indians 
thoroughly  appreciated  the  help  given  them  at  this 
difficult  point  by  the  beavers  (for  Hamilton  was  fol- 
lowing the  regular  route  of  traders,  hunters,  and 
war  parties),  and  none  of  the  beavers  of  this  dam 
were  killed  or  molested.  They  were  left  to  repair 
the  dam,  which  they  always  speedily  did  whenever 
it  was  damaged." 

The  Wabash  was  shallow  in  many  places,  and 
swampy  in  others.  Frost  set  in  and  the  ice  cut  the 
men  as  they  hauled  the  boats  over  the  shoals.  The 
boats  often  needed  to  be  beached  and  calked,  while 
both  whites  and  Indians  had  to  help  carry  the  loads 
round  the  shallow  places.  At  every  Indian  village 
it  was  necessary  to  stop,  hold  a  conference,  and  give 
presents.  At  one  of  these  villages  the  Wabash  chiefs, 
who  had  made  peace  with  Clark,  came  and  joined 
Hamilton.  Some  of  Helm's  scouts  from  Fort  Vin- 
cennes  were  also  captured.  War  parties  were  sent  out 
to  surround  Vincennes  and  to  cut  off  any  messengers 
that  might  be  sent  to  Clark  or  to  Kentucky.  When 
Hamilton  finally  reached  Vincennes,  all  the  French 
deserted  Clark  and  joined  the  English,  so  that  Helm 
was  left  with  only  two  or  three  Americans,  and  they 
were  forced  to  surrender. 

Hamilton's  spies  now  brought  him  word  that 
Clark  had  but  1 10  men  in  Illinois,  while  Hamilton 


THE   STORY   OF  CLARK  IOI 

had  500.  Had  he  pushed  forward  at  once  to  attack 
Clark,  he  might  have  captured  his  force.  He  did 
not  fear  that  Clark,  with  such  a  small  body  of  men, 
would  try  to  recapture  Vincennes.  He  allowed  the 
Indians  to  scatter  to  their  homes  for  the  winter  and 
the  Detroit  militia  to  return  to  Detroit.  Eighty  or 
ninety  white  soldiers  were  kept  at  the  fort,  and  about 
as  many  Indians.  In  the  spring  he  expected  to  begin 
the  war  again  on  a  large  scale  with  a  thousand  men, 
and  with  light  cannon  with  which  to  batter  down  the 
stockades.  He  expected  not  only  to  defeat  Clark 
in  Illinois,  but  to  drive  the  Americans  out  of 
Kentucky. 

Clark,  on  the  other  hand,  could  expect  no  reen- 
forcements  from  Kentucky  or  Virginia,  nor  any 
further  aid  from  the  French  in  Illinois.  In  the 
spring  Hamilton  was  certain  to  have  an  army  so 
strong  that  he  could  not  resist  it.  For  a  long  time 
Clark  could  not  get  exact  information  of  what  had 
happened  at  Vincennes,  nor  of  the  condition  of 
things  there.  But  at  last  news  came  from  a  French 
friend  of  Clark  who  had  been  at  Vincennes.  He 
was  a  trader,  named  Vigo,  from  St.  Louis.  Hav- 
ing gone  to  Vincennes,  he  was  at  first  imprisoned  by 
Hamilton,  but  afterwards  was  released  and  returned 
to  tell  Clark  the  news.  He  said  there  were  eighty 
white  men,  besides  Indians,  with  Hamilton  in  the 
fort,  with  three  pieces  of  cannon  and  swivels.  There 
was  also  at  the  fort  plenty  of  ammunition  and  pro- 


- 


102  SPECIAL  METHOD   IN   HISTORY 

visions.  It  was  now  the  last  of  January,  and  earl} 
in  the  spring  other  British  soldiers,  from  Canada, 
besides  1000  Indians,  would  join  Hamilton.  Clark  at 
once  decided  to  march  with  his  170  men  and 
attack  Vincennes  before  spring  opened.  He  first, 
however,  sent  out  a  large  row-galley  with  small 
cannon  and  40  men.  It  was  to  go  up  the  Ohio 
and  Wabash  and  be  ready  to  assist  the  soldiers 
who  were  to  march  across  southern  Illinois  by 
land. 

With  this  170  Kentuckians  and  French  he  set  out 
from  Kaskaskia,  on  the  seventh  day  of  February. 
The  route  by  which  they  had  to  go  was  240  miles  in 
length.  It  lay  through  a  beautiful  and  well-watered 
country  of  groves  and  prairies,  but  at  that  season  the 
march  was  one  of  hardships  and  fatigue.  There  were 
no  roads,  no  houses  for  shelter.  There  were  no  paths 
through  the  prairies  and  swamps,  no  bridges  over 
swollen  streams.  The  weather  had  grown  mild  so 
that  at  first  there  was  no  suffering  from  the  cold, 
but  it  rained,  and  the  melting  ice  caused  great 
freshets,  and  all  the  lowlands  and  meadows  were 
flooded.  "  Clark's  great  object  was  to  keep  his 
troops  in  good  spirits.  Of  course  he  and  his  officers 
shared  every  hardship  and  led  in  every  labor.  He 
encouraged  the  men  to  hunt  game  and  to  feast  on 
it  like  the  Indian,  each  company  in  turn  inviting  the 
other  to  the  smoking  and  plentiful  banquet.  One 
day  they  saw  a  great  herd  of  buffaloes  and  killed 


THE  STORY  OF  CLARK  103 

many.  They  had  no  tents,  but  at  nightfall  they 
kindled  large  camp-fires  and  spent  the  evening  mer- 
rily around  the  piles  of  blazing  logs,  in  hunter  fash- 
ion, feasting  on  beans,  ham,  and  buffalo  hump,  elk 
saddle,  venison  haunch,  and  the  breast  of  the  wild 
turkey,  some  singing  of  the  chase  and  of  war,  others 
dancing  after  the  manner  of  the  French  trappers 
and  wood-runners.  Thus  they  marched  hard  but 
gleefully  and  in  good  spirits  until,  after  a  week,  they 
came  to  the  drowned  lands  of  the  Little  Wabash. 
The  channels  of  its  two  branches  were  a  league 
apart,  but  the  flood  was  so  high  that  they  now 
formed  one  great  river  five  miles  wide,  the  overflow 
of  water  being  three  feet  deep  in  the  shallowest  part 
of  the  plains  between,  and  alongside  the  main  chan- 
nels. Clark  instantly  started  to  build  a  pirogue,  or 
boat,  out  of  the  trunk  of  a  large  tree.  Then  cross- 
ing over  the  first  channel,  he  put  up  a  scaffold  upon 
the  edge  of  the  flooded  plain.  He  ferried  his  men 
over  and  brought  the  baggage  across  and  placed  it 
upon  the  scaffold ;  then  he  swam  the  pack-horses 
over,  loaded  them  as  they  stood  in  the  water 
beside  the  scaffold,  and  marched  his  men  on." 
They  crossed  the  second  channel  in  the  same 
manner. 

The  next  day  they  came  to  a  branch  of  the  Wabash 
which  was  so  flooded  that  they  could  not  cross. 
Having  found  a  dry  place  to  camp,  they  waited  till 
morning  and  marched  down  to  where  this  branch 


104  SPECIAL  METHOD  IN   HISTORY 

joined  the  Wabash.  They  were  now  ten  miles  from 
Vincennes,  seven  of  them  being  the  valley  of  the 
Wabash,  covered  to  a  depth  of  three  or  more  feet 
with  water.  They  were  entirely  out  of  provisions, 
and  the  boat  was  not  expected  for  several  days.  Four 
men  were  sent  out  to  see  if  they  could  not  find  boats 
opposite  Vincennes,  but  they  could  not  get  to  the 
Wabash.  Rafts  were  then  made  and  four  other  men 
were  sent  to  search  for  boats,  but  they  found  nothing, 
after  wading  in  the  water  all  day  and  night.  One 
little  boat  was  found  by  another  party,  and  two  men 
were  sent  with  it  to  search  for  the  big  boat  that  was 
coming  up  the  river.  For  two  days  now,  the  men 
had  been  working  hard,  with  nothing  to  eat,  and  the 
Frenchmen  began  to  talk  of  going  home.  To  keep 
the  men  busy,  Clark  set  them  to  work  making  canoes 
on  the  bank.  At  noon  they  saw  a  party  of  French- 
men from  Vincennes  coming  down  the  river  in  a  boat, 
and  called  to  them.  They  came  ashore,  told  Clark 
that  Hamilton  knew  nothing  of  the  little  army,  and 
that  the  French  people  at  the  village  were  friendly  to 
Clark.  They  said,  also,  there  were  two  canoes  adrift 
on  the  river  above.  One  of  these  Clark  secured. 
This  day  one  of  the  men  killed  a  deer  and  brought  it 
in,  and  this  gave  a  bite  to  eat  for  each  of  the 
170  men. 

They  now  had  boats  enough  to  ferry  the  army 
across  the  main  channel,  and  they  did  so  the  next  day, 
and  the  men  walked  three  miles  through  the  water, 


THE  STORY  OF  CLARK  1 05 

in  places  up  to  their  necks.  It  rained  all  day  and 
they  camped  on  a  little  hill  that  night  without  food. 
The  next  day  they  marched  three  miles  further  on 
through  the  water  with  nothing  to  eat.  That  night 
the  weather  turned  cold  and  the  wet  clothing  of  the 
men  froze  on  them.  The  next  morning  the  men  were 
nearly  tired  out.  There  were  still  four  miles  of 
water  to  wade  through,  breast  deep.  Clark  encour- 
aged his  men  to  follow  and  plunged  first  into  the 
water.  It  was  covered  with  a  thin  ice,  but  the  men 
gave  a  shout  and  followed  him.  "  Clark's  tact  and 
resource  were  never  more  remarkably  displayed  than 
here.  As  he  had  managed  the  Indians,  so  now  he 
knew  just  how  to  manage  the  Creoles.  He  laughed 
at  the  hardships ;  he  played  the  buffoon,  blacking  his 
face  and  breaking  in  upon  the  disconsolate  crowd 
with  horse-play.  Mounting  '  a  little  antic  drummer,'  a 
valuable  ally  with  his  pranks  in  the  strait,  on  the 
shoulders  of  a  tall  sergeant,  the  sergeant  dashed 
ahead  into  depths  where  the  little  fellow  would  have 
found  no  bottom.  Meantime  the  drum  rattled  on 
merrily,  and  Clark,  striking  up  a  song  or  a  cheer, 
plunged  after,  making  light  of  everything.  But  be- 
hind the  forced  lightness  there  was  a  stern  hand. 
Twenty-five  picked  men  formed  a  rear-guard  with 
orders  to  slay  any  one  that  faltered." 

At  last  they  reached  the  edge  of  the  woods  where 
they  thought  the  water  stopped,  but  the  dry  land 
was  further  on.  Some  of  the  men  gave  out,  too  weak 


106  SPECIAL   METHOD   IN   HISTORY 

to  walk.  The  canoes  ran  back  and  forth  and  helped 
the  weak  to  reach  land.  As  they  touched  the  solid 
ground  many  fell  down,  hardly  able  to  stand  any 
longer.  But  the  day  was  bright,  fire  was  kindled  in 
the  woods,  their  clothes  were  dried,  and,  luckier  still, 
some  squaws  and  children  came  along  in  a  boat  with 
a  quarter  of  a  buffalo,  some  corn,  tallow,  and  kettles. 
These  were  captured,  and  "  after  eating  some  broth  " 
the  men  felt  better.  Warmed,  dried,  and  refreshed, 
they  began  to  jest  over  the  hardships  they  had  just 
passed  through. 

But  the  fort  and  the  village  were  not  yet  captured, 
and  Clark's  little  army  was  so  small  that  if  his  ene- 
mies knew  how  few  soldiers  he  had,  it  would  be  hard 
to  capture  the  place.  Clark  decided  first  to  seize  the 
French  village  near  the  fort,  and  to  make  the  people 
think  his  army  much  larger  than  it  really  was.  In 
the  afternoon  he  captured  a  Frenchman  who  was  out 
shooting  ducks.  This  man  was  sent  back  to  the 
French  village  with  word  that  Clark  with  his  army 
was  about  to  storm  the  place,  and  for  all  the  people 
in  the  village  to  keep  quiet  unless  they  wished  to  be 
severely  punished.  "  As  the  army  advanced  among 
trees  and  over  ridges,  a  shrewd  ruse  made  the  num- 
ber appear  larger  than  it  really  was.  The  little  flags, 
given  the  French  recruits  at  Kaskaskia  when  they 
enlisted,  were  paraded  as  ensigns  of  companies ;  the 
ranks  marched  and  countermarched  so  as  to  be 
counted  three  or  four  times  over;  while  Clark  and 


THE  STORY  OF  CLARK  107 

his  captains,  mounted  on  horses  they  had  seized, 
galloped  hither  and  thither  as  if  ordering  a  vast 
array."  Hamilton  knew  nothing  of  Clark's  army  till 
the  village  was  taken  and  the  Kentuckians  began  to 
fire  on  the  fort. 

Clark  threw  up  an  intrenchment  across  the  road  in 
front  of  the  main  gate  of  the  fort,  and  that  night  the 
British  in  the  fort  and  the  Americans  in  the  town 
kept  up  a  constant  firing  of  guns  without  doing  much 
damage.  In  the  morning,  early,  Clark  demanded  the 
surrender  of  the  fort,  but  Hamilton  refused.  While 
they  were  waiting  for  an  answer,  Clark's  men  cooked 
and  ate  their  breakfast,  the  first  complete  meal  they 
had  had  for  several  days.  Then  the  firing  began 
again.  The  fort  was  surrounded  on  all  sides,  and  not 
a  man  could  show  his  face  or  hand  without  great 
danger.  The  Americans  were  fine  riflemen,  and 
could  hit  a  silver  dollar  at  a  distance  of  one  hundred 
yards.  They  kept  behind  houses,  earthworks,  and 
logs  near  the  fort,  and  kept  up  such  a  constant  firing 
of  guns  that  several  British  soldiers  were  killed. 
The  British  could  not  use  their  cannon  because, 
every  time  a  port-hole  opened,  bullets  flew  into  it 
too  fast. 

In  the  morning  Clark  sent  a  summons  to  Hamilton 
to  surrender,  suggesting  that  in  case  he  had  to  storm 
the  fort,  he  would  treat  those  captured  as  murderers. 
Hamilton  replied  that  British  soldiers  would  do  noth- 
ing dishonorable.  The  attack  upon  the  fort  was  then 


108  SPECIAL  METHOD   IN   HISTORY 

hotly  renewed.  In  the  afternoon,  Hamilton  raised  a 
flag  of  truce,  and  later  met,  at  the  church  in  the  vil- 
lage, Colonel  Clark,  who  upbraided  him  for  his  cruelty 
in  sending  out  the  savage  Indians  to  massacre  men, 
women,  and  children.  While  Clark  and  Hamilton 
were  warmly  disputing  at  the  church,  a  scalping  party 
of  Indians,  which  had  been  sent  out  by  Hamilton 
against  Kentucky,  returned  to  Vincennes  with  their 
plunder  and  scalps.  They  were  captured  by  Clark's 
men,  brought  up  in  sight  of  the  fort,  and  nine  of  them 
were  killed  and  their  bodies  thrown  into  the  river. 
Clark  finally  drew  up  conditions  which  Hamilton 
accepted,  and  the  next  morning  the  British  flag  was 
hauled  down  and  the  fort  with  its  arms  and  supplies 
turned  over  to  Clark.  The  British  marched  out  as 
prisoners  of  war.  Hamilton  and  his  officers  were 
sent  to  Virginia  as  prisoners.  The  name  of  the  fort 
was  changed  to  Patrick  Henry. 

Having  heard  that  a  relief  force  with  supplies  was 
coming  down  the  Wabash  from  Detroit,  Clark  sent 
Captain  Helm  with  more  than  fifty  men  to  meet  them. 
He  succeeded  in  capturing  the  whole  party  of  more 
than  forty  men,  and  $50,000  worth  of  supplies,  which 
were  distributed  as  prize-money  among  the  men. 

The  Indian  tribes  of  Illinois  and  Indiana  now  came 
to  Clark  and  made  peace.  From  this  time  on  Vin- 
cennes and  Kaskaskia  remained  in  the  hands  of  the 
Americans.  In  the  peace  of  Paris,  which  closed 
the  Revolutionary  War,  the  English  acknowledged 


THE  STORY  OF  CLARK  109 

the  right  of  the  thirteen  colonies  to  the  great  North- 
west which  Clark  had  captured. 

In  1779  Clark  returned  and  settled  at  the  Falls  of 
the  Ohio.  He  received  a  vote  of  thanks  from  Vir- 
ginia, and  enjoyed  an  immense  respect  and  popularity 
among  the  pioneers,  French,  and  western  Indians. 

Method  of  Treatment 

In  this  story  of  Clark's  conquest  of  the  Northwest 
we  will  attempt  to  illustrate  the  chief  phases  of 
method  in  the  oral  treatment  of  history  stories. 

At  the  very  beginning  of  the  story  the  purpose  of 
Clark  in  his  great  undertaking  is  clearly  brought  out, 
and  this  gives  unity  to  all  the  later  details  of  the 
narrative. 

The  following  outline  is  suggested  as  an  example 
of  such  a  clearly  defined  series  of  topics  as  we  have 
recommended :  — 

1.  The  aim  of  Clark. 

2.  The  warfare  with  the   English  and  the  Indians 

and  the  situation  in  Kentucky. 

3.  Clark's  journey  to  Virginia  and  its  results. 

4.  Recruiting  the  army  along  the  upper  Ohio. 

5.  The  trip  down  the  Ohio  from  the   Falls  to  the 

mouth  of  the  Tennessee. 

6.  Secret  march  through  southern  Illinois  and  cap- 

ture of  Kaskaskia. 

7.  His  kind  treatment  of  the  French. 


IIO  SPECIAL  METHOD   IN   HISTORY 

8.  The   many  and  serious   difficulties   surrounding 

Clark. 

9.  How  he  renewed  and  strengthened  his  army. 

10.  The  capture  of  Vincennes. 

11.  Clark's  treatment  of  the  Indians  at  Cahokia. 

12.  Hamilton's  preparations  at  Detroit. 

13.  Hamilton's  journey  up  the  Maumee  and  down 

the  Wabash. 

14.  Clark's  difficult  situation  and  his  plan  to  meet  it. 

15.  The  march  across  southern  Illinois  in  February. 

1 6.  Crossing  the  flooded  Wabash. 

17.  Clark's   approach   and   capture   of  the   French 

village. 

1 8.  The  attack  upon  the  fort  and  its  surrender. 

19.  Results   of  the  capture  of  Vincennes  and  Kas- 

kaskia. 

20.  Comparisons  between  this  and  other  stories. 

Such  a  distinct  outline  as  this  may  serve  as  a  basis 
for  a  thorough  handling  of  the  story  in  the  class- 
room. At  the  close  of  the  presentation  of  each  topic 
such  a  brief  phrase  or  title  can  be  placed  upon  the 
blackboard,  and  as  the  class  advances  through  the 
story,  a  complete,  simple  outline  of  the  chief  steps  is 
kept  clearly  in  mind.  Such  an  outline  of  each  story 
should  be  put  by  the  children  into  their  note-books. 

The  importance  of  good  wall  maps,  and  especially 
of  blackboard  sketches  made  at  first  by  the  teacher, 
is  very  great.  In  setting  forth  the  aim  of  Clark  in 


THE  STORY  OF  CLARK  III 

the  first  topic  of  this  story,  the  teacher,  in  two  min 
utes,  can  draw  a  large  sketch  on  the  blackboard, 
including  the  Ohio  River,  a  part  of  the  Alleghany 
Mountains,  and  the  Northwest,  including  Kaskaskia, 
Vincennes,  and  Detroit,  which  will  make  the  whole  sit- 
uation at  the  beginning  of  the  story  very  clear.  A 
wall  map  may  then  be  used  to  show  the  relation  in 
which  this  blackboard  sketch  stands  to  the  whole  coun- 
try at  that  time.  The  children  should  also  be  encour- 
aged, in  reproducing  the  story,  to  draw  a  similar  sketch 
on  the  blackboard,  and  to  locate  the  places.  Later,  in 
several  parts  of  the  story,  special  blackboard  sketches 
made  by  the  teacher,  while  presenting  and  discuss- 
ing the  lesson,  are  necessary.  For  example,  Clark's 
descent  of  the  river  from  Brownsville  to  the  Falls ; 
the  trip  from  the  Falls  to  the  mouth  of  the  Tennes- 
see, and  the  secret  march  across  southern  Illinois  to 
surprise  Kaskaskia.  Later,  Hamilton's  expedition 
from  Detroit  to  Vincennes,  along  the  Wabash,  and 
Clark's  march  across  southern  Illinois,  in  February, 
against  Vincennes.  The  route  of  every  one  of  these 
journeys  should  be  made  unmistakably  clear  by  a  black- 
board sketch,  and  the  children  may  be  easily  encour- 
aged to  make  similar  drawings  in  their  own  work. 

The  Solution  of  Problems 

The  story  of  Clark  furnishes  a  large  number  of 
excellent  problems  to  stimulate  the  thought  of  chil- 
dren. We  will  indicate  a  few  of  these.  After  form- 


112  SPECIAL  METHOD  IN  HISTORY 

ing  his  purpose,  Clark's  one  great  need  was  an  army. 
How  is  he  to  secure  it  ?  This  question  may  set  the 
children  to  thinking  along  the  same  lines  upon  which 
Clark  had  to  exercise  his  wits.  But  before  this 
problem  is  set  for  the  children  they  must  understand 
the  conditions  which  surrounded  the  Kentuckians ; 
the  warlike  raids  of  the  British  and  the  Indians  in 
Kentucky  ;  the  location  of  the  forts  ;  the  situation  of 
Kentucky,  separated  from  Virginia  by  the  broad  and 
difficult  mountains.  Children  can  do  but  little  think- 
ing here  without  a  clear  grasp  of  the  geographical 
situation.  With  these  things  in  mind  they  may  be 
asked :  How  can  Clark  raise  an  army  ?  They  may 
answer :  He  will  ask  the  Kentuckians  to  join  him. 
But  are  the  Kentuckians  willing  to  desert  their  homes 
on  a  long  march  into  distant  regions,  leaving  their 
families  at  the  mercy  of  the  Indians  ?  How  are  the 
men  to  be  paid  for  their  months  of  absence  from  the 
home,  among  dangers,  marches,  and  battles  ?  Ken- 
tucky at  this  time  belonged  to  Virginia.  Perhaps 
Virginia  might  help  them.  In  what  ways  might 
Virginia  be  of  service  to  Clark  in  raising  an  army  ? 
Such  questions  lead  up  to  Clark's  journey  to  Virginia 
and  its  results. 

Another  interesting  problem  for  Clark  at  Pittsburg 
is  this :  What  sort  of  an  outfit  for  his  army  must  be 
provided  before  leaving  Pittsburg  ?  This  will  bring 
up  the  matter  of  boats,  provisions,  clothing,  tools  and 
firearms,  ammunition,  presents  for  the  Indians,  medi- 


THE  STORY  OF  CLARK  113 

cines  and  other  things  which  would  be  needed  in  their 
months'  travelling  and  campaigning  through  these 
new  countries.  Such  a  question  may  lead  the  chil- 
dren to  do  some  close  and  serious  thinking  along  the 
same  lines  upon  which  Clark  was  compelled  to  show 
his  forethought  and  good  sense. 

When  Clark  had  reached  the  mouth  of  the  Ten- 
nessee River  with  his  little  army,  it  was  necessary  for 
him  to  solve  a  difficult  problem,  namely,  how  to  cap- 
ture a  strongly  fortified  place  containing  a  well- 
drilled  army  two  or  three  times  as  large  as  his  own. 
Instead  of  telling  the  children  just  what  he  did,  it 
may  be  better  to  ask  them  what  it  were  best  to  do 
under  the  circumstances,  and  to  spend  perhaps  five 
minutes  in  considering  proposed  plans.  This  will 
lead  to  a  much  sharper  grasp  of  the  plan  which 
Clark  adopted  and  of  its  advantages. 

After  Clark  had  captured  Kaskaskia,  and  by  kind 
treatment  had  won  the  friendship  of  the  French,  he 
found  himself  beset  with  the  most  serious  difficulties. 
Each  one  of  these  is  a  problem  demanding  solution. 

First,  the  term  of  service  of  his  soldiers  was  about 
up  and  the  men  wished  to  return  home,  but  without 
a  strong  army  Clark  could  do  nothing  at  all.  How 
could  he  manage  to  hold  his  little  army  together  and 
strengthen  it?  What  promises  could  he  offer  the 
men  to  encourage  them  to  stay  with  him  ?  Could  he 
get  help  from  any  other  source  ?  Possibly  the 
French  might  help  him.  What  about  the  Indians? 


I  14  SPECIAL  METHOD  IN   HISTORY 

Could  he  expect  any  other  help  from  Kentucky  or 
Virginia  ?  Then  follows  the  account  of  what  he 
actually  did. 

An  equally  serious  problem  is  expressed  by  the 
question,  How  should  he  manage  the  Indians  ? 
They  were  growing  bold  and  defiant.  They  were 
very  numerous  and  had  little  respect  for  Clark  and 
his  small  army.  How  can  he  command  their  respect 
and  secure  their  aid  against  the  English  ?  These 
questions  lead  to  one  of  the  most  interesting  scenes 
in  the  story, —  Clark  in  council  with  the  Indian 
chiefs.  The  boldness,  shrewdness,  and  self-command 
with  which  Clark  solved  this  problem  and  brought 
the  Indian  chiefs  to  the  point  when  they  begged  for 
peace  and  friendship  is  one  of  the  most  remarkable 
acts  in  American  history,  and  children  can  appreci- 
ate its  meaning.  Some  famous  pictures  have  been 
painted  to  illustrate  this  scene. 

Clark's  devices  for  securing  the  surrender  of  Vin- 
cennes  are  a  good  illustration  of  his  skill  in  manage- 
ment. 

Clark's  chief  problem  in  the  latter  part  of  the 
story  is  how  to  defeat  Hamilton.  Hamilton,  on  the 
other  hand,  has  the  problem  of  how  to  circumvent 
Clark,  and  it  will  be  interesting  to  inquire  how  each 
will  strive  to  get  the  advantage  of  the  other.  Clark, 
however,  is  very  remarkable  both  for  the  shrewdness 
of  his  plans  and  for  the  desperate  boldness  with 
which  he  executes  them.  When  finally  Clark 


THE  STORY  OF  CLARK  1 15 

received  news  through  Vigo  of  the  condition  of 
affairs  at  Vincennes,  what  plan  is  it  best  for  him  to 
adopt?  What  are  his  chances  for  capturing  Vin- 
cennes before  spring  opens  ?  What  difficulties  will 
have  to  be  met?  Then  follows  the  march  across 
southern  Illinois  to  Vincennes.  As  the  little  army, 
destitute  of  food,  is  struggling  across  the  flooded  low 
lands  of  the  Wabash,  how  will  Clark  keep  up  the 
spirits  of  his  men  ?  They  are  in  the  most  desperate 
condition  of  hunger  and  cold.  How  will  he  encour- 
age the  weak  and  helpless  and  faint-hearted  ? 

As  Clark  approaches  the  French  village  how  can 
he  make  the  French  in  the  village  and  the  English 
in  the  fort  think  that  he  has  a  very  strong  army  ? 

These  are  a  few  of  the  interesting  and  important 
problems  which  Clark  had  to  solve  and  in  which 
children  will  be  greatly  interested.  In  most  cases 
they  should  be  allowed  the  privilege  of  working  out 
these  problems  in  whole  or  in  part.  It  will  give 
them  a  much  keener  appreciation  of  the  story,  of  its 
hardships  and  bold  exploits.  It  will  give  the  chil- 
dren a  chance  to  think  and  reason  upon  subjects 
within  the  range  of  their  capacity  and  interest,  and 
of  estimating  better  Clark's  character. 

The  comparison  of  Clark's  exploits  with  those  of 
other  leaders  in  American  history  may  also  serve  as 
an  illustration  of  the  advantages  of  such  compari- 
sons. The  story  of  the  early  life  of  Washington,  of 
this  series  of  pioneer  tales,  includes  an  account  of 


Il6  SPECIAL  METHOD  IN  HISTORY 

Braddock's  expedition  against  Fort  Duquesne.  Le\ 
Clark's  expedition  be  compared  with  Braddock's. 
Braddock  was  supplied  at  great  expense  with  a 
strong,  well-equipped  army  of  British  regulars,  with 
all  the  guns,  ammunition,  and  stores  of  a  complete 
baggage-train.  Clark  had  first  to  gather  up  a  very 
small  army,  and  his  supplies  were  of  the  most  meagre 
sort,  no  uniforms,  no  cannon,  no  baggage  train,  and  at 
first  no  discipline.  Braddock  moved  slowly  because 
he  had  to  build  a  road  for  his  army,  wagons,  and 
train.  Clark  moved  swiftly,  stopping  to  build  no 
roads.  The  Indian  and  French  scouts  boasted  that 
they  observed  daily  from  the  mountain-sides  the  slow 
movements  of  Braddock's  army,  and  were  near  his 
camp  every  night.  They  finally  set  a  trap  into 
which  his  whole  army  fell  and  was  almost  massacred 
by  a  much  inferior  force.  Clark,  on  the  other  hand, 
moved  so  swiftly  and  secretly  that  he  was  inside  the 
fort  at  Kaskaskia  before  his  enemies  knew  that  he 
had  an  army  or  was  marching  against  them.  The 
commander  of  Kaskaskia  was  captured  in  bed. 
Clark  lost  scarcely  a  man,  while  Braddock  lost  his 
army  and  his  own  life.  Braddock  fought  against 
forces  much  inferior  to  his  own  in  number  and 
strength,  and  lost  everything.  Clark's  enemies  were 
much  superior  to  his  army  in  numbers  and  equip- 
ment, and  yet  he  was  completely  victorious  and  lost 
scarcely  a  man.  What  was  the  chief  cause  of  this 
striking  difference  ? 


THE  STORY  OF  CLARK  117 

A  comparison  of  Cortes'  expedition  against  Mexico 
with  Clark's  undertaking  has  some  striking  points 
of  resemblance  which  children  may  discover  later 
when  they  study  the  story  of  Cort6s.  CorteV  bold- 
ness in  marching  with  a  small  army  against  a  rich 
empire  is  like  that  of  Clark.  In  the  management  of 
the  Indian  tribes  so  as  to  secure  the  aid  of  the  power- 
ful tribe  of  the  Tlascalans,  Cortes  showed  a  shrewd- 
ness like  that  of  Clark.  Which  of  these  leaders  had 
greater  difficulties  to  surmount?  Cortes  had  vast 
numbers  of  enemies  to  deal  with,  but  Clark  not  only 
had  against  him  superior  numbers,  but  the  western 
Indian  tribes  were  excellent  fighters,  and  the  English 
troops  were  quite  equal  in  training  and  courage  to  his 
own  men. 

Which  of  these  men  was  engaged  in  the  more  des- 
perate adventures  ?  The  retreat  of  the  Spaniards 
from  the  city  of  Mexico  was  a  fearful  struggle,  such 
as  Clark  did  not  have  to  encounter ;  but  if  Clark  had 
not  been  the  most  fearless  of  men  he  would  certainly 
have  been  scalped  with  all  his  men  by  the  Indians, 
while  the  hardships  of  Clark's  men  in  crossing  the 
drowned  valley  of  the  Wabash  have  scarcely  been 
equalled.  Which  of  these  men  was  the  more  skilful 
in  recruiting  his  army?  In  this  respect  they  were 
very  much  alike  and  were  both  successful. 

In  which  case  were  the  results  more  important,  the 
conquest  of  Mexico  by  Corte"s,  or  the  conquest  of  the 
Northwest  by  Clark  ?  Which  of  these  countries  now 


Il8  SPECIAL  METHOD  IN   HISTORY 

has  the  greater  wealth  and  population,  the  northwest- 
ern states  captured  by  Clark,  or  Mexico  ?  Compare 
their  chief  cities  in  importance.  If  the  English  had 
held  the  Ohio  Valley  at  the  close  of  the  Revolution- 
ary War,  how  large  would  the  United  States  be  now, 
perhaps  f 

After  dealing  with  Wolfe's  capture  of  Quebec,  it 
may  be  well  to  compare  the  results  of  the  conquest 
of  Canada  by  the  English  and  Americans  with  the 
later  conquest  of  the  Northwest  by  Clark.  In  fact, 
Clark's  success  was  the  next  great  step  in  preparing 
the  way  for  the  growth  of  the  American  nation. 
There  are  several  other  important  events  of  American 
history  which  may  be  brought  into  fruitful  comparison 
with  Clark's  enterprise.  Anthony  Wayne's  capture 
of  Stony  Point,  and  his  later  expedition  against  the 
Indians  of  Ohio  and  Indiana  and  the  battle  of  Fallen 
Timber  may  be  compared  to  advantage  with  the  cam- 
paign of  Clark. 

In  his  personal  deeds  there  are  some  striking 
points  of  resemblance  between  him  and  La  Salle  in 
council  with  the  Indians,  also  Champlain  and  Fron- 
tenac  in  their  dealings  with  the  Iroquois. 

It  is  well  then  to  keep  the  children  alert  in  the 
direction  of  comparing  men  and  events.  It  teaches 
them  to  bring  their  previous  studies  into  constant 
review,  to  discover  interesting  resemblances  and  con- 
trasts, and  to  bring  into  a  closer  relationship  events 
which  teach  the  same  lesson. 


CHAPTER  IV 

SIXTH   GRADE   IN    HISTORY 

THAT  part  of  American  history  which  is  proposed 
for  treatment  in  sixth  grade  includes  the  early  settle- 
ments, the  growth  of  the  coloniesr  and  the  French 
and  Indian  wars  up_to  the  outbreak  of  the  Revolu- 
tion. Children  at  this  age  are  not  philosophers,  nor 
are  they  interested  in  abstract  questions  of  govern- 
ment and  social  order,  but  in  all  the  lively,  pictur- 
esque^ and  adventurous  phases  of  life. 

This  period,  as  a  whole,  is  well  adapted  in  its 
materials  to  instruct  children  because  it  is  so  simple 
and  primitive  in  all  its  surroundings,  occupations, 
social  amusements,  and  politics.  Even  in  the  later 
period  there  are  no  large  cities.  By  far  the  greater 
part  of  the  people  lived  on  farms  or  scattered  estates. 
Modes  of  travel  by  boat  or  on  horseback,  methods  of 
government  and  trade,  were  of  a  rude  character, 
adapted  to  the  simplest  necessities. 

But  in  contrast  with  the  two  preceding  years,  we 
now  take  up  the  chronological,  consecutive  develop- 
ment of  the  colonies,  including  in  one  movement  the 
varied  and  complex  elements  of  progress.  Pupils 

"9 


120  SPECIAL  METHOD   IN   HISTORY 

begin  to  trace  the  causes  and  results  of  historica*. 
events.  This  brings  us  to  the  consideration  of  one 
of  the  most  difficult  problems  in  teaching  and  even 
in  writing  history,  namely,  how  to  carry  along  simul- 
taneously the  main  threads  of  historical  action  and  to 
maintain  a  comprehensive  grasp  of  the  complex 
forces  at  work.  In  nearly  all  of  our  text-books  we 
have  brief  summaries  or  comprehensive  statements 
giving  an  epitome  of  leading  events  in  each  period ; 
but  it  is  a  miscellaneous  and  incoherent  body  of  facts 
which  is  thus  collected.  It  is  not  suitable  material  of 
instruction  for  children. 

In  Spencer's  "  Aims  and  Practice  of  Teaching " 
Prof.  J.  E.  Lloyd,  while  discussing  the  methods  of 
teaching  in  history,  says :  — 

"1  take  the  epitome  method  first,  as  the  most 
widely  prevalent,  at  any  rate  in  secondary  schools, 
and  undoubtedly  the  worst.  It  consists  in  placing  in 
the  hands  of  the  pupil  one  of  those  cunningly  de- 
vised summaries  of  all  English  history,  thickly  sea- 
soned with  dates  and  tables,  in  which  an  amazing 
amount  of  information  is  compressed  within  the  nar- 
rowest limits,  and  then  expecting  the  hapless  youth 
or  maiden  to  commit  assigned  portions  to  memory. 
I  well  remember  the  surprise  which  a  pupil  of  mine, 
newly  arrived  at  college  from  a  school  where  this 
was  the  plan,  expressed  on  getting,  in  a  history  exam- 
ination paper,  questions  which  involved  a  certain 
amount  of  thinking ;  '  I  thought,'  was  the  naive 


SIXTH   GRADE  IN   HISTORY  121 

remark,  '  we  should  have  been  asked  to  write  out  a 
reign.'  Indeed,  I  have  a  lively  recollection  of  the 
compendium  to  which  I  devoted  many  hours  of  my 
own  school  days,  the  most  compendious  and  syste- 
matic of  its  kind,  a  history  with  all  the  life  crushed 
out  of  it.  Such  books  resemble  nothing  so  much 
as  the  pemmican  of  American  hunters  —  they  are 
exceedingly  compact,  but  at  the  same  time  a  highly 
unpalatable  form  of  intellectual  sustenance.  No  one 
who  has  followed  me  in  the  account  I  have  tried  to 
give  of  the  function  of  history  will  need  to  be  told 
that  the  epitome  system  is  radically  vicious.  There 
is  a  well-known  maxim  in  education  —  'the  concise 
is  the  opposite  of  the  elementary,'  and  in  no  field  of 
study  is  this  truer  than  in  history.  The  compiler  » 
who  rigidly  strips  his  narrative  of  all  ornamental  and  / 
illustrative  detail  may  suppose  he  is  giving  the  pupil 
the  very  pith  and  marrow  of  history :  he  is,  in  fact, 
robbing  the  story  not  only  of  all  its  interest,  but  of 
all  its  value.  For  history  is  only  worth  studying  in 
so  far  as  it  vivifies  the  past,  lights  up  the  dim  spaces 
of  the  bygone  world  and  fills  them  with  figures  which 
move  and  feel  and  live.  That  Henry  VIII  was  six 
times  wedded  is  of  small  importance  to  us,  even 
though  we  know  the  names  and  the  parentage  of  the 
ladies :  what  is  vital  is  that  we  should  have  a  clear 
conception  what  manner  of  man  he  was." 

If  such  a  system  of  epitomizing  and  thus  squeez- 
ing the  life  out  of  history  is  to  be  rejected  in  second- 


132  SPECIAL   METHOD   IN   HISTORY 

ary  schools,  still  more  does  it  deserve  to  be  utterly 
excluded  fror;  the  more  elementary  classes  of  the 
common  school.  Instead  of  such  an  epitome  we  are 
in  pressing  need  of  a  carefully  selected  series  of 
suitable  topics  for  children  for  a  Course  of  Study  in 
history.  In  the  chapter  on  the  Course  of  Study  we 
have  attempted  to  make  such  a  selection.  Such 
topics  when  once  chosen  should  receive  a  full,  fruit- 
ful, and  instructive  treatment. 

In  studying  the  colonial  period  of  American  his- 
tory in  sixth  grade3  as  outlined  in  the  course  of  study, 
it  is  a  question  whether  we  are  not  entering  upon 
some  subjects  too  difficult  for  sixth-grade  pupils. 
The  charters  granted  by  European  states,  the 
royal  prerogatives;  the  taxing  power  of  Parlia- 
ment, navigation  laws,  the  gradual  growth  of  rep- 
resentative governing  bodies  in  the  colonies  and 
the  religious  disputes  will  seem  to  many  too  diffi- 
cult for  children  of  this  grade.  Against  these 
objections  we  may  place  the  following  consider- 
ations :  — 

I.  In  the  earliest  settlement  of  colonies  we  have 
the  simplest  possible  economic,  social,  and  govern- 
mental conditions.  The  origins  of  no  European 
state  can  be  traced  back  to  such  simple,  well-known 
conditions  as  those  of  Plymouth,  Jamestown,  and 
other  colonies.  Life  was  rude  and  plain,  and  every- 
thing sprang  from  the  simplest  beginnings.  Even 
the  religious  life,  inherited  through  centuries  from 


SIXTH  GRADE  IN   HISTORY  123 

Europe,  was  simple  and  direct  in  its  manifestations 
and  results. 

2.  The  beginnings  of  government  and  the  simple 
transition  from  pure  democracy  to  a  representative 
system  can  be  seen  as  nowhere  else.     The  powerful 
tendency   toward    self-government   through   colonial 
assemblies,  and  in  opposition  to  the  tyranny  of  royal 
governors,  can  be  easily  understood. 

3.  The  spirit  and   occupations  of   the   people   in 
fishing,  agriculture,  lumbering,  and  ship-building  are 
such  as  children  can  understand. 

4.  The  dramatic  incidents  of  Indian  war  and  reli- 
gious persecution  present  no  special  difficulty. 

5.  Colonial  history  should  be  treated  largely  as  a 
series  of  colonial  biographies.     Interest  should  centre 
in  such  men  as  William  Penn,  Benjamin   Franklin, 
Miles    Standish,   John    Winthrop,    Roger   Williams, 
Eliot,   Davenport,  Andros,   Berkeley,  Bacon,  Wash- 
ington, Montcalm,  and  others.     A  few  leading  biog- 
raphies   in     each    colony   treated   with    interesting 
fulness  will  serve  as  strong  types  to  bring  out  the 
aims  and  character  of  the  people. 

6.  During   the  colonial   period  we  are  collecting 
data  in  matters  of  government  and  social  history, 
whose  general  and  deeper   meaning  will  be  better 
seen   when   we   come   to   survey  the  causes  of   the 
Revolution  in  the  seventh  grade.     When  we   reach 
this  point,  about  the  middle  of  the  seventh  grade,  we 
can  well  afford  to  go  back  and  trace  up  in  succession 


124  SPECIAL  METHOD   IN  HISTORY 

the  steps  in  the  development  of  free  government  in 
the  colonies.  This  will  be  preceded  also  in  the 
seventh  grade  by  a  study  of  the  Puritan  revolution 
in  England. 

The  big  units  in  the  colonial  period  should  be 
selected  with  much  care  and  each  should  be  pre- 
sented in  a  large,  comprehensive,  and  luminous  de- 
scription. We  purpose  a  full,  rich  treatment  of  each 
of  the  four  principal  colonies,  thus  finding  plenty  of 
time  for  descriptions  and  biographical  detail.  A 
strong,  Macaulay-like  description  of  a  few  striking 
episodes  in  the  leading  colonies  will  produce  a  much 
keener  interest  and  a  stronger  insight  into  our  early 
history  than  the  foolish  effort  to  stretch  our  drag-net 
over  all  the  colonies  and  gather  in  every  important 
event.  We  must  experience  the  lives  and  struggles 
of  the  colonists  in  the  midst  of  sickness,  danger,  and 
rough  hardship,  in  the  severe  straits  of  famine  and 
Indian  outrage,  or  governmental  restraint  and  cruelty, 
so  as  to  feel  as  they  felt,  and  to  appreciate  their  im- 
pulses and  surroundings.  As  each  settlement  grows 
into  the  proportions  of  a  state,  and  its  population 
spreads  over  a  larger  territory,  with  increasing  com- 
plexity of  interests,  the  careful  selection  of  a  few 
prominent  topics  requires  still  greater  wisdom  and 
leads  to  the  most  important  results  in  teaching. 

In  the  fourth  and  fifth  grade  biographies  have 
formed  the  natural  units  of  instruction,  and  in  the 
sixth  grade  also  some  of  these  biographies  should  be 


SIXTH   GRADE  IN   HISTORY  125 

given  a  very  prominent  place.  Other  large  topics 
are  furnished  by  the  life  of  the  common  people,  such 
as  the  family  customs,  the  religious  habits,  and  their 
system  of  labor.  The  plan  of  government  as  it 
developed  itself  in  each  colony  is  always  an  impor- 
tant topic.  A  few  of  the  chief  campaigns,  especially 
of  the  French  and  Indian  War,  may  be  selected  as 
units  of  study. 

First  in  regard  to  the  use  of  the  biographies.  The 
lives  of  John  Winthrop  in  Boston,  of  Roger  Williams 
and  William  Penn,  are  worthy  of  a  descriptive  treat- 
ment as  a  means  of  graphic  and  almost  dramatic  pres- 
entation of  colonial  happenings.  The  spirit  of  these 
men,  and  of  the  colonies  which  they  led,  can  never 
be  understood  by  children  from  short,  condensed 
sketches.  It  is  the  full  account  of  the  deeds,  pur- 
poses, and  trials  which  can  make  history  real.  Later 
on,  the  lives  of  Sir  Henry  Vane,  Cotton  Mather, 
Governor  Berkeley,  Sir  Edmund  Andros,  and  Benja- 
min Franklin  deserve  the  same  sort  of  narrative  and 
descriptive  account. 

A  somewhat  complete  story  of  the  life  of  Benjamin 
Franklin  may  accompany  the  latter  part  of  this 
epoch.  Much  of  his  autobiography  would  serve 
this  purpose.  As  a  public  man,  and  in  his  personal 
affairs  even,  his  life  is  of  importance  to  Pennsylvania 
and  Massachusetts  and,  as  a  colonial  agent,  to  nearly 
all  the  colonies.  As  a  statesman  he  was  wide  awake 
to  public  interests  and  led  the  way  to  a  closer  union 


126  SPECIAL  METHOD  IN   HISTORY 

of  all  the  colonies.  He  was  deeply  interested  in 
practical  schemes  for  improving  the  conditions  of 
life,  inventing  stoves  and  street  lamps,  encouraging 
schools  and  the  popular  spread  of  knowledge.  He 
was  plain,  temperate,  and  frugal  in  his  style  of  living, 
and  in  very  many  respects  the  story  of  his  life  is  suit- 
able for  children  to  study  His  plain  sense  and 
humor,  his  economy  and  simplicity,  his  energy  and 
public  spirit  are  excellent,  and  arouse  children  to  self- 
improvement  and  knowledge.  Many  parts  of  his 
autobiography  may  be  read  by  sixth-grade  children 
and  discussed  by  the  teacher  in  the  class.  Passages 
also  from  "  Poor  Richard's  Almanac  "  are  quaint  and 
noteworthy.  His  own  descriptions  of  journeys, 
friends  and  acquaintances,  both  in  the  colonies  and 
in  England,  and  his  modes  of  self-improvement  are 
of  great  educative  value. 

Other  representative  leaders  in  colonial  history 
may  furnish  a  spirited  introduction  to  the  vigorous 
young  life  of  these  early  American  communities. 
Children  of  this  grade  are  not  yet  old  enough  to 
understand  or  interest  themselves  much  in  the  devel- 
opment of  purely  political  and  social  organiza- 
tions. It  is  well  to  keep  to  the  shady,  inviting  bio- 
graphical walks  where  personal  actions  and  interests 
serve  to  illustrate  the  life  of  communities.  It  is 
safer  to  let  the  panorama  of  history  unroll  itself 
in  a  few  great  typical  persons,  with  occasional 
strong  glimpses  of  the  underlying  forces  which 


SIXTH   GRADE  IN   HISTORY  12? 

are  formulating  themselves  into  the  institutions  of 
freedom. 

In  working  up  to  a  clear  view  of  the  political  and 
other  ideas  that  were  hammered  out  into  consistency 
and  strength  during  the  colonial  period,  we  should 
keep  in  sight  a  strong  foreground  of  dramatic  inci- 
dent and  of  biographical  detail.  These  furnish  the 
concrete  materials  behind  which  children  can  detect 
and  trace  up  the  moving  causes.  It  is  easier  to 
approach  large  political  and  social  affairs  through  the 
lives  of  individuals  than  to  generalize  about  institu- 
tions and  modes  of  life.  The  lives  of  such  men  as 
Bradford,  Standish,  Stuyvesant,  Oglethorpe,  King 
Philip,  Otis,  Frontenac,  Sir  William  Johnson,  Wolfe, 
and  Montcalm  stand  out  clearly  at  important  crises 
and  exemplify  the  chief  influences  at  work. 

Leading  Topics  from  the  Life  of  the  Common  People 

Back  of  the  lives  of  conspicuous  leaders  such  as 
we  have  mentioned  is  the  life  and  struggle  of  the 
common  people.  In  some  if  not  in  all  the  colonies 
the  vigorous,  independent  folk-life  was  more  power- 
ful in  determining  the  course  of  events  than  the 
work  of  their  strongest  leaders.  Especially  in  the 
English  colonies  was  this  influence  of  the  stout  yeo- 
manry manifest.  The  French  and  Spanish  had 
leaders  of  a  marvellous  personal  force  and  energy, 
but  the  rank  and  file  were  not  of  the  nation-building 


128  SPECIAL  METHOD   IN   HISTORY 

material  as  compared  with  the  English.  In  the  his- 
tory of  the  early  settlements  the  strength  of  charac- 
ter of  the  common  man  is  strongly  in  evidence.  As 
they  put  themselves  to  building  houses  in  the  wilder- 
ness, in  like  manner  they  raised  the  framework  of 
states  and  governments.  They  had  a  rude  struggle 
to  find  a  footing  in  the  simple  industries  of  lumber- 
ing, farming,  and  fishing  along  the  New  England 
coast  or  in  the  tide-water  region  of  Virginia. 

Moreover,  this  life  of  the  common  folk  presents 
striking  phases  which  are  interesting  to  children. 
We  may  mention  their  houses  and  home  life,  their 
fireside  industries,  the  gathering  of  the  family  about 
the  great  fireplaces,  their  sober  lives  and  family 
worship,  their  antique  furniture  and  dress,  and  even 
their  efforts  at  Puritan  amusements.  Their  meeting- 
houses and  long  sermons  in  cold  churches,  their 
rigorous  Sunday  supervision  of  boys,  and  their  love 
of  theology  will  always  stand  forth  as  remarkable 
traits  of  character.  They  were  Puritans,  even  to  the 
extent  of  persecution  and  outlawry  of  those  who  did 
not  agree  with  them. 

Other  large  topics  rooted  in  the  life  of  the  com- 
mon people  are  the  different  systems  of  labor  in  the 
colonies,  including  the  indentured  servants,  slavery 
and  the  patroon  system,  the  contrasted  modes  of 
farming,  north  and  south,  the  aristocracies  of  New 
England  and  Virginia,  the  toilsome  modes  of  travel 
by  water  and  on  land,  the  backwoods  trapping,  hunt- 


SIXTH   GRADE   IN   HISTORY  I2g 

ing,  and  scouting,  the  adventurous  fishing  and  whal- 
ing voyages,  the  transactions  of  town  meetings  and 
colonial  assemblies.  Children  should  come  into 
hand-to-hand,  close  quarters  with  these  people  by 
means  of  fine  descriptions,  personal  narratives,  his- 
torical pictures,  and  eye-witness  testimonies,  such  as 
are  now  furnished  abundantly  in  the  best  source 
materials. 

In  describing  the  people  in  the  different  colonies 
there  is  discovered  a  picturesque  variety  in  manner 
of  life,  as  based  upon  great  differences  in  language, 
religion,  and  fatherland.  The  races  which  settled 
America  were  of  many  strongly  contrasted  types. 
The  mirth-loving  French  are  very  sharply  contrasted 
with  the  sober  New  England  Puritans.  The  Dutch 
greatly  disliked  the  shrewd,  inquisitive  Yankees. 
The  Quakers  were  a  remarkably  peculiar  people,  and 
the  gentry  of  the  southern  colonies  had  different  tastes 
and  sentiments  from  all  the  others.  The  Swedes, 
the  Scotch  and  Irish,  and  the  Germans  formed  also 
strong  contingents,  with  very  pronounced  peculiari- 
ties, in  several  different  colonies.  The  Indians  and 
negroes  added  a  still  more  marked  contrast  to  the 
classes  named  above. 

Incidentally,  the  countries  of  Europe,  Africa,  and 
America,  from  which  these  different  races  sprung, 
are  brought  into  interesting  review.  The  variety  of 
races,  creeds,  and  nationalities  among  the  early  set- 
tlers of  America  gives  an  astonishing  diversity  to 


I3O  SPECIAL   METHOD   IN   HISTORY 

early  American  history,  for  at  that  time  each  of  these 
diverse  classes  retained  its  peculiarities  unmodified 
by  the  others.  In  the  treatment  of  each  colonial 
type  a  very  interesting  and  vivid  picture  of  racial 
character  and  customs,  very  attractive  to  children, 
may  be  drawn,  and  later  on  the  comparing  and  con- 
trasting of  these  classes  with  one  another  will  prove 
a  lively  and  intelligent  source  of  interest.  We  have 
hardly  been  accustomed  to  enter  deeply  enough  into 
these  matters  in  our  school  work  to  get  the  rich  and 
instructive  lessons  which  they  contain  for  the  young. 
The  failure  of  our  epitomized  history  text-books  to 
bring  out  these  striking  race  diversities,  these  pictu- 
resque peculiarities  of  different  peoples  in  the  early 
colonies,  shows  clearly  how  they  have  failed  to  grasp 
the  significant  power  of  the  concrete  side  of  history 
instruction.  Some  writers  have  claimed  that  the 
exclusive  use  of  American  history  in  our  common 
schools  would  make  children  narrow  and  provincial. 
While  we  believe  that  our  own  histories  should  be 
much  enriched  by  that  of  European  countries,  we 
still  hold  that  these  early  narratives  contain  such  a 
variety  of  strong  provincialisms  that  it  amounts 
almost  to  a  cosmopolitan  breadth.  But  in  order  to 
understand  these  lessons,  children  must  be  allowed  to 
form  brightly  colored  concrete  pictures  of  the  pecul- 
iar modes  of  life  found  in  the  different  colonies. 

We    have    already   discussed    the   importance   of 
biography,  which  is  also  an  excellent  means  of  bring- 


SIXTH  GRADE  IN   HISTORY  131 

ing  out  many  details  of  private  life  among  the  people. 
McMaster,  and  other  historians,  have  set  up  as  their 
paramount  aim  this  vivid  description  of  life  among  the 
people.  By  passages  from  such  books,  teachers  and 
children  may  refresh  their  imaginations  with  full  and 
adequate  descriptions  of  the  activities,  amusements, 
holidays,  and  family  life  of  the  masses. 

A  special  means  of  giving  greater  intensity  and 
insight  into  historical  events  is  the  source  material. 
This  comes  directly  from  eye-witnesses  and  contem- 
poraries of  the  events  described.  Of  late  it  has  been 
carefully  collected  and  brought  within  the  reach  of 
teachers  and  school  libraries.  It  is  certainly  a  very 
select  means  of  reviving  the  history  of  our  fathers 
and  giving  it  a  substantial  reality.  It  is  now  gener- 
ally admitted  that  these  quaint  and  picturesque  de- 
scriptions by  eye-witnesses  are  incomparably  strong  in 
their  power  to  revive  the  past.  Hart  says :  "  As  a 
record,  sources  are  the  basis  of  history,  but  not  mere 
raw  material  like  the  herbaria  of  the  botanist,  or  the 
chemicals  of  a  laboratory,  stuffs  to  be  destroyed  in 
discovering  their  nature;  as  utterances  of  men  living 
when  they  were  made,  they  have  in  them  the  breath 
of  human  life ;  history  is  the  biology  of  human  con- 
duct. Nobody  can  settle  any  historical  question 
without  an  appeal  to  the  sources,  or  without  taking 
into  account  the  character  of  the  actors  in  history." 
Hart's  four  volumes  of  carefully  selected  and 
arranged  sources,  touching  every  important  period 


132  SPECIAL   METHOD   IN   HISTORY 

and  topic  of  our  history,  give  the  most  striking  and 
overwhelming  proofs  of  the  value  of  these  source 
materials  in  vivifying  the  past.  By  way  of  illustra- 
tion a  few  sentences  will  be  given  from  Vol.  II,  p.  65, 
"  Pennsylvania,  the  Poor  Man's  Paradise."  "  I  must 
say,  even  the  Present  Encouragements  are  very  great 
and  inviting,  for  Poor  People  (both  Men  and  Women) 
of  all  kinds,  can  here  get  three  times  the  Wages  for 
their  Labour  they  can  in  England  or  Wales. 

"  I  shall  instance  in  a  few,  which  may  serve  ;  nay, 
and  will  hold  in  all  the  rest.  The  first  was  a  Black- 
Smith,  (my  next  Neighbour)  who  himself  and  one 
Negro  Man  he  had,  got  Fifty  Shillings  in  one  Day, 
by  working  up  a  Hundred  Pound  Weight  of  Iron, 
which  at  Six  Pence  per  Pound  (and  that  is  the  com- 
mon Price  in  that  Country)  amounts  to  that  Summ. 

"  Before  I  end  this  Paragraph,  I  shall  add  another 
Reason  why  Womens  Wages  are  so  exorbitant ;  they 
are  not  yet  very  numerous,  which  makes  them  stand 
upon  high  Terms  for  their  several  Services,  in 
Sempstering,  Washing,  Spinning,  Knitting,  Sewing, 
and  all  the  other  parts  of  their  Imployments ;  for 
they  have  for  Spinning  either  Worsted  or  Linen, 
Two  Shillings  a  Pound,  and  commonly  for  Knitting  a 
very  Course  pair  of  Yarn  Stockings,  they  have  half 
a  Crown  a  pair ;  moreover  they  are  usually  Marry'd 
before  they  are  Twenty  Years  of  Age,  and  when  once 
in  that  Noose,  are  for  the  most  part  a  little  uneasie, 
and  make  their  Husbands  so  too,  till  they  procure 


SIXTH  GRADE  IN   HISTORY  133 

them  a  Maid  Servant  to  bear  the  burden  of  the 
Work,  as  also  in  some  measure  to  wait  on  them 
too." 

These  source  materials  are  short  and  simple,  very 
amusing  and  entertaining  to  the  children,  and  provide 
just  those  brilliant  side-lights  which  no  text-book  or 
single  author  can  supply.  Hart  says  again :  "  But 
there  are  two  sides  to  history,  the  outward  events  in 
their  succession,  with  which  secondary  historians 
alone  can  deal,  and  the  inner  spirit  which  is  revealed 
only  by  the  sources.  If  we  could  not  know  both 
things  it  would  be  better  to  know  how  Mary  Dyer 
justified  herself  for  being  a  Quakeress,  than  how  her 
trial  was  carried  on.  The  source,  therefore,  throws  an 
inner  light  upon  events ;  secondary  writers  may  go 
over  them,  collate  them,  compare  them,  sometimes 
supplement  them,  but  can  never  supersede  them. 

"  As  for  entertainment  the  narratives  of  discovery 
are  the  Arabian  Nights  of  history  for  their  marvels 
and  adventures." 

Source  materials  are  not  designed  to  make  chil- 
dren scientific  investigators  and  critics  of  sources,  like 
a  post-graduate  in  a  University  seminary.  They 
may,  however,  accustom  a  child  to  consult  books 
and  authorities  outside  of  his  text.  The  four  volumes 
of  source  material  mentioned  above  consist  of  simple, 
short  selections  which  both  teacher  and  pupils  can 
use  without  any  loss  of  time  upon  irrelevant  ma- 
terial. 


134  SPECIAL   METHOD  IN  HISTORY 


The  Chronological  and  Causal  Sequence 

In  following  out  the  story  of  a  colony  like  Penn- 
sylvania or  Virginia  a  child  may  discover  a  steady 
growth ;  causes  which  he  understands  move  on  to 
definite  results.  The  early  conditions  in  the  colonies 
are  so  simple,  so  concretely  manifest,  that  he  can  see 
the  inevitableness  of  certain  results,  such  as  the 
peculiar  mode  of  plantation  life  in  Virginia,  or  the 
small  farms,  lumbering,  and  fisheries  of  New  Eng- 
land. Nothing  is  able  to  stir  up  more  enthusiasm  in 
a  class  and  to  throw  the  children  more  upon  their 
own  thinking  power  than  a  rich  supply  of  suitable 
facts  from  which  they  may  search  out  the  causes  and 
results  of  important  events.  By  limiting  our  study 
to  a  very  few  of  the  salient  topics  in  colonial  history 
it  is  possible  to  go  deeper  into  those  ground-con- 
nections between  the  facts.  An  event  like  the  Al- 
bany Congress  of  1754  can  be  fully  described,  its 
many-sided  relations  to  the  colonies  and  to  England 
examined,  and  Franklin's  wisdom  in  his  plan  of 
union  brought  to  light.  The  intelligent  tracing  out 
of  these  relations  ties  up  the  facts  in  such  a  firm 
association  that  a  clear  understanding  and  a  retentive 
remembrance  are  assured.  As  examples  worthy  of 
such  cause-and-effect  study  we  may  mention  the  navi- 
gation acts  and  commercial  restrictions  upon  the 
trade  of  the  colonists,  the  position  and  influence  of 


SIXTH   GRADE  IN   HISTORY  135 

the  Five  Nations  in  New  York,  Bacon's  Rebellion  in 
Virginia,  and  the  final  defeat  of  the  French  in  1760. 
Not  many  topics  can  be  handled  in  such  a  richly 
instructive  manner.  As  in  agriculture,  the  more  in- 
tense the  cultivation,  the  less  extensive  is  the  area 
cultivated.  There  is  a  wide  difference  between 
merely  naming  causes  and  assuming  the  impor- 
tance of  events  on  the  one  side,  and  tracing  up 
causes  and  finding  out  why  events  are  important 
on  the  other. 

The  work  of  the  sixth  grade  is  essentially  to  ob- 
serve the  growth  of  small  and  weak  settlements  into 
strong  and  vigorous  commonwealths  with  waxing 
commercial,  economic,  and  political  interests.  Espe- 
cially has  it  been  customary  to  emphasize  the  politi- 
cal history  of  these  colonies.  But  government  is  an 
abstract  subject  for  children  in  the  sixth  grade,  and 
to  be  of  interest  and  value  to  them  it  must  be  dealt 
with  in  a  very  practical  and  illustrative  manner.  In 
New  England,  beginning  with  the  Pilgrims  at  Plym- 
outh, it  is  easy  to  see  how  a  purely  democratic  rule 
in  the  town  meeting  was  natural  and  appropriate  in 
providing  for  the  affairs  of  common  interest.  Later, 
as  the  settlements  spread  out  over  the  adjacent 
country,  a  representative  body  of  men  was  naturally 
selected  to  consult  on  public  questions,  and  finally 
the  General  Court  of  Massachusetts  was  the  inevi- 
table outgrowth  of  this  representative  system.  As 
this  popular  self-government,  expressing  the  will  of 


136  SPECIAL   METHOD  IN   HISTORY 

the  people,  grew  up  gradually  out  of  the  conditions 
of  life  it  acquired  a  powerful  hold  on  the  people's 
affections.  In  fact,  it  was  part  of  their  life  and  the 
very  safeguard  of  their  rights.  The  more  their 
royal  governors  antagonized  this  direct  product  of 
the  people's  will,  the  more  the  affections  of  the  latter 
were  set  upon  it.  State  sovereignty  was  the  strong- 
est political  idea.  It  is  well  for  the  children  to  feel 
keenly  the  attachment  of  the  Puritan  for  his  New 
England  life,  town  meeting,  church,  and  legislature. 
It  is  well  to  measure  his  confidence  in  his  own  local 
government  and  the  causes  for  it. 

The  independent,  self-reliant  spirit  of  the  Ameri- 
cans in  the  northern,  middle,  and  southern  colonies 
should  be  seen  in  its  unvarnished  strength  as  prom- 
inently brought  out  in  the  dealings  with  royal  gov- 
ernors, with  kings  and  parliaments,  as  well  as  in  the 
laborious  and  dangerous  work  of  exploration,  settle- 
ment, and  Indian  conflict.  So  simple  is  the  environ- 
ment of  the  early  colonies  that  sixth-grade  children, 
we  think,  in  approaching  the  subject  on  the  line  of 
concrete  illustration,  can  appreciate  the  temper  of  the 
people,  and  follow  with  interest  their  methods  of  self- 
government  and  the  educative  process  by  which  they 
gradually  trained  themselves  toward  freedom  and 
independence.  The  acts  and  characters  of  royal 
governors  are  closely  examined,  as  showing  wisdom 
and  prudence  or  tyranny  and  selfishness.  The  pre- 
rogatives assumed  by  royal  governors  and  the  rights 


SIXTH   GRADE  IN  HISTORY  137 

asserted  by  the  people  kept  the  two  parties  in  almost 
constant  conflict,  and  gave  a  vigorous  schooling  in 
practical  politics.  The  persons  involved  and  the 
principles  at  stake  in  this  struggle  are  in  themselves 
very  interesting.  Such  study  is  an  excellent  training 
for  young  Americans  because  of  its  direct  moral 
example  and  warning  and  as  a  preparation  for  the 
exercise  of  political  rights  in  later  years. 

In  this  connection  it  is  of  great  value  to  draw  illus- 
trations familiar  to  the  children  from  local,  state,  and 
national  politics  of  the  present  time.  This  is  one  of 
the  best  modes  of  teaching  practical  civics.  The  city 
or  town  council  with  examples  of  its  law-making 
power,  the  assessment  and  collection  of  local  taxes, 
the  election  of  local  officers,  magistrates,  and  mem- 
bers of  the  legislature,  should  be  brought  into  com- 
parison with  similar  acts  in  colonial  life. 

As  the  leading  colonies  are  studied,  one  after 
another,  the  comparison  of  the  political  life,  strug- 
gles, and  constitutions  of  the  one  under  discussion 
with  those  previously  studied  is  valuable  because  it 
leads  to  striking  discoveries  and  conclusions.  The 
pronounced  differences  between  royal,  charter,  and 
proprietary  control  are  noticeable.  But  in  spite  of 
the  striking  differences  in  the  form  of  government, 
in  race,  religion,  industrial  and  social  life,  it  is  found 
that  the  colonies  developed  curiously  similar  tenden- 
cies toward  independent  self-government.  Every- 
where they  showed  the  same  self-reliance,  the  same 


138  SPECIAL   METHOD   IN    HISTORY 

sturdy,  manly  independence,  and  the  same  opposition 
to  the  encroachments  of  authority. 

The  study  of  four  or  five  leading  colonies,  one 
after  another,  furnishes  an  uncommonly  good  test 
of  the  plan  of  reviews  by  comparison.  Each  of  these 
colonies  had  for  many  years  a  distinct,  independent 
development.  Each  was  surrounded  by  a  wild  wil- 
derness, beset  by  savages,  and  each  was  under  the 
necessity  of  defending  and  maintaining  itself  by  its 
own  self-reliant  efforts.  A  comparison  of  the  vicissi- 
tudes through  which  the  Virginia  settlements  passed, 
with  those  of  Massachusetts,  would  bring  out  a  re- 
markable number  of  striking  incidents.  At  the  same 
time,  the  strong  contrast  in  the  labor  system,  religion, 
form  of  local  government,  and  social  character  of  the 
colonists  lends  a  special  interest  and  force  to  these 
comparisons.  Each  time  the  history  of  a  colony  is 
compared  with  another,  a  very  thoughtful  review  is 
made  of  the  affairs  of  both.  But  each  review  of  this 
sort  has  more  of  new  thought  and  acquisition  than  of 
mere  repetition  of  the  facts  learned.  For  purposes 
of  thorough  mastery  no  better  plan  could  be  devised 
than  such  comparative  reviews.  At  the  same  time 
the  dead  and  formal  repetition  so  often  found  in  the 
review  work  is  reduced  to  a  minimum. 

Moreover,  it  is  a  first-class  illustration  of  that  in- 
ductive method  of  teaching,  now  so  much  recom- 
mended, by  which  the  concrete  individual  illustrations 
are  steadily  gathered,  compared,  and  organized. 


SIXTH   GRADE  IN   HISTORY  139 

Every  comparison  of  one  colonial  history  with  an- 
other  leads  to  more  general  conclusions  than  any 
single  history  can  supply,  and  by  the  time  we  have 
passed  over  the  history  of  the  leading  colonies  by 
successive  comparisons,  we  have  arrived  at  those 
general  conclusions  which  the  history  of  the  colonies 
in  America  teaches. 

Such  a  study  also  brings  children  into  close  touch 
with  the  natural  development  of  American  ideas;  for 
as  the  colonies  grew  and  came  into  closer  touch  and 
association  with  one  another,  they  were  forced  to 
compare  themselves  with  one  another,  unite  their 
interests  and  combine  their  forces  along  the  line  of 
these  very  conclusions.  The  strength  of  the  attach- 
ment which  each  colony  felt  for  its  local  institutions 
and  form  of  government  was  for  many  years  a  pow- 
erful obstruction  to  a  closer  union  of  the  colonies, 
but  a  broader  sympathy  and  allegiance  was,  by  the 
force  of  circumstances,  more  and  more  demanded  of 
them.  Slowly  and  experimentally  they  discovered 
the  necessity,  justice,  and  wisdom  of  inter-colonial 
interest  and  helpfulness.  The  larger  relations  of  the 
colonies  to  the  Indians,  to  the  French,  and  to  the  gov- 
ernment of  England,  lead  up  incessantly  to  the  idea 
of  political  life  and  patriotism  in  a  broader  sense.  By 
such  comparisons  and  inductions  as  we  have  indicated, 
it  is  easy  to  trace  the  growth  of  this  sentiment  through 
the  colonial  period. 

The  natural  robust  expansion  of  the  colonies  made 


140  SPECIAL  METHOD   IN   HISTORY 

union  a  necessity,  but  at  certain  periods  of  relaxation 
they  seemed  to  grow  sharply  antagonistic  to  each 
other.  In  all  our  later  epochs  these  two  forces,  cen- 
tripetal and  centrifugal,  have  been  formative  in  their 
influence  on  our  politics.  Later  on,  our  constitution 
is  found  to  be  an  instrument  to  put  in  balance  these 
two  powerful  tendencies  of  our  history. 

One  effect  of  this  scheme  of  comparisons  between 
colonies  by  which  the  striking  points  of  resemblance 
and  difference  are  mastered  is  to  make  unnecessary 
a  second  full  treatment  of  the  same  topics.  By  this 
plan  each  succeeding  year  leads  on  to  new  and  later 
historical  fields.  The  customary  school  course  in  his- 
tory has  required  the  children  to  pass  over  the  same 
events  several  times,  to  review  each  year  the  same 
epochs  previously  studied,  enlarging  upon  them  ac- 
cording to  the  supposed  capacity  of  the  children.  A 
brief  retrospect  upon  our  course  as  thus  far  explained 
shows  the  selection  of  a  few  topics  each  year  which 
the  children  can  really  appreciate.  These  are  to  be 
enriched  and  vitalized  with  such  concrete  illustrations 
as  will  make  them  thoroughly  interesting  and  intelli- 
gible. By  frequent  comparisons  with  similar  topics 
previously  studied,  more  general  conclusions  involved 
in  this  subject-matter  are  inductively  worked  out  by 
children  and  teacher.  In  the  sixth  grade  we  wish  to 
do  our  duty  by  the  colonial  period,  so  that  the  chil- 
dren will  not  need  to  return  a  second  time  to  a  like 
exhaustive  study  of  the  same  topics,  but  may 


SIXTH   GRADE  IN   HISTORY  141 

pass  on  to  new  and  important  topics  in  our  later 
history. 

There  is  also,  in  addition  to  the  comparisons  just 
discussed,  another  important  phase  of  review  work 
of  the  greatest  value.  Some  of  the  topics  later  studied 
in  seventh  and  eighth  grades  have  a  striking  resem- 
blance to  those  treated  in  the  sixth,  and  admit  of  the 
most  interesting  and  profitable  comparisons.  In  fram- 
ing the  federal  Constitution  various  examples  fur- 
nished by  the  earlier  colonial  governments  became 
the  models  for  the  division  into  executive,  legislative, 
and  judicial  departments.  Some  of  the  campaigns  of 
the  Revolution  are  projected  along  the  Hudson  and 
Lake  Champlain,  as  in  the  French  and  Indian 
wars.  The  critical  period  before  the  adoption  of  the 
Constitution  gives  a  striking  exhibition  of  the  weak- 
nesses which  grew  out  of  the  colonial  conditions  pre- 
ceding the  Revolution.  This  comparison  of  later 
epochs  in  seventh  and  eighth  grades  with  those  previ- 
ously studied  in  the  sixth  grade  is  seen  to  be  valuable 
in  throwing  a  flood  of  light  upon  the  meaning  of 
events,  both  earlier  and  later. 

Of  equal  value  is  the  tracing  back  of  the  causal 
connection  of  events  from  our  earlier  to  our  later 
history.  Almost  every  important  topic  treated  in 
seventh  and  eighth  grades  can  be  understood  only  by 
carefully  reviewing  the  foundations  of  our  history  in 
colonial  times.  Slavery  struck  its  roots  deep  dur- 
ing this  early  period,  and  when  the  Constitution  was 


142  SPECIAL   METHOD   IN   HISTORY 

adopted  found  full  recognition  in  that  instrument 
State  sovereignty  got  such  a  powerful  recognition  in 
our  federal  compact  that  it  did  not  discover  until 
1 86 1  that  it  was  not  paramount.  But  we  need  not 
multiply  illustrations.  The  powerful  causal  sequence 
which  binds  all  of  our  later  history  to  the  earlier 
should  give  to  teachers,  even  in  the  common  schools, 
more  than  a  hint  as  to  the  true  method  of  teaching 
our  history.  A  child  should  be  taught  to  grow  up 
with  our  history,  and,  by  tracing  back  the  chief 
causes,  keep  in  his  mind  the  determining  forces  which 
shape  later  events.  But  that  our  schools  have  not 
done  this  is  due  to  the  prevalent  conviction  that  his- 
tory is  merely  a  memorizing  of  chief  events  by  reiter- 
ation, not  by  thoughtful  connection  and  sequence,  not 
by  comparative  reviews. 

In  all  later  studies  children  should  be  allowed  to 
trace  back  the  causes,  to  return  again  and  again  to 
these  familiar  fields  of  former  study,  and  to  pick  up 
the  threads  of  connection  between  past  and  present. 
They  will  thus  get  new  light  and  sift  out  a  stronger 
meaning  from  old  events.  But  the  main  work  of  each 
year  will  be  centred  upon  a  new,  a  later  theme.  It  is 
well  worth  our  effort  to  try  to  select  for  each  grade 
historical  periods  which  the  children  can  fairly  under- 
stand, and  to  lead  them  on  each  succeeding  year  into 
a  new  and  instructive  field,  somewhat  more  complex 
but  still  within  their  reasonable  grasp. 

The   question   will   again   obtrude   itself   whether 


SIXTH   GRADE   IN    HISTORY  143 

children  of  the  sixth  grade  are  capable  of  the  kind  of 
study  by  comparison  and  causal  sequence  which  we 
have  supposed.  It  was  suggested  once  before  that 
children  are  quite  capable  of  reasoning  when  they 
possess  sufficient  concrete  knowledge  and  experi- 
ence, and  for  this  we  have  persistently  provided  by 
gathering  about  each  topic  abundant  material  of  fact, 
illustration,  biography,  adventure,  and  everyday  life. 
In  our  usual  modes  of  teaching  we  have  hardly  given 
the  children  a  fair  chance  to  show  what  reasoning 
power  they  possess.  We  have  assumed  rather  that 
they  had  little  or  nothing  of  this  reasoning  power, 
but  that  their  memories  were  quick  and  retentive 
of  the  brief  formulated  statements  and  general  con- 
clusions of  the  text-books.  To  grasp  the  meaning 
of  these  epitomized  statements  presupposes,  however, 
a  much  greater  maturity  of  understanding  in  children 
than  we  have  asked,  for  it  assumes  their  ability  to 
understand  important  conclusions  and  inferences 
without  the  data  upon  which  they  are  based. 

In  the  later  part  of  the  sixth-grade  work,  in  dealing 
with  topics  of  general  interest  to  all  the  colonies,  such 
as  the  Indian  wars,  the  struggle  of  European  powers 
for  supremacy  in  America,  and  the  closer  union 
among  the  colonies  themselves  for  meeting  these 
conditions,  we  have  to  do  with  larger  enterprises 
which  point  the  way  to  those  greater  developments 
which  come  thronging  upon  us  in  the  seventh  grade. 
The  story  of  the  conflict  between  France  and  the 


144  SPECIAL   METHOD   IN   HISTORY 

English-Americans  for  control  in  North  America  is 
the  most  dramatic  phase  of  this  period.  The  episode 
of  the  great  struggle  between  the  French  and  the 
Five  Nations  is  preliminary  to  this,  and  of  much  value 
as  exhibiting  the  Indians  at  their  greatest  strength. 
Children  of  the  sixth  grade  can  respond  with  a  lively 
intelligence  to  the  campaigns  of  the  last  French  and 
Indian  War.  When  Pitt  finally  assumed  control,  and 
Wolfe  and  Montcalm  enter  upon  that  energetic 
contest,  we  have  an  exhibition  of  high  spirit  and 
enterprise  on  both  sides  in  an  inevitable  contest 
whose  results  determined  the  whole  trend  of  our 
later  history. 

All  through  the  studies  of  the  sixth  grade  the 
intimate  and  close  dependence  of  our  history  upon 
that  of  England  and  other  European  lands  advises 
us  of  the  necessity  of  better  understanding  the  pur- 
poses of  those  countries  and  the  reasons  for  their 
constant  and  controlling  interference  in  American 
affairs.  It  is  necessary  also  to  go  a  little  deeper 
into  a  review  of  the  causes  of  emigration  from  those 
countries,  the  religious  persecutions  and  desire  for 
colonial  empire  which  combined  in  settling  America. 

The  close  dependence  of  the  early  settlements  and 
of  the  later  colonies  upon  royal  grants  and  royal 
authority  make  it  advisable  to  trace  back  the  causes 
of  settlement  to  Europe,  and  to  get  as  definite  notions 
as  possible  of  the  peoples  and  countries  from  which 
the  colonists  came.  The  study  of  the  colonial  period 


SIXTH   GRADE  IN   HISTORY  145 

should  therefore  to  a  considerable  degree  be  a  study 
of  England,  Holland,  Sweden,  France,  Scotland,  and 
Ireland,  and  of  the  political  and  religious  conditions 
in  those  countries,  at  least  of  those  which  led  directly 
to  the  emigrations.  In  our  plan  the  seventh-grade 
geography  is  devoted  to  the  study  of  Europe.  In 
this  work  the  character,  occupations,  and  govern- 
ments of  European  states  will  receive  a  still  more 
definite  treatment.  Thus  geography  and  history 
may  work  together.  Incidentally  we  acquire  in 
these  ways  a  considerable  knowledge  of  European 
courts,  princes,  and  political  policies,  and  also  much 
knowledge  of  the  ideas,  customs,  and  conditions  of 
the  common  people  from  whose  midst  the  emigrants 
came. 

In  studying  the  last  great  conflict  between  the 
French  and  English  for  colonial  empire,  we  have 
an  excellent  opportunity  to  review  broadly  the  whole 
course  of  colonial  settlement  by  these  two  nations,  to 
contrast  the  characters  of  the  French  and  the  English 
in  America,  and  to  get  a  clearer  understanding  of  the 
quality  of  the  English  colonists  as  a  whole.  This  is 
a  very  good  illustration  to  show  how  the  long  series 
of  historical  facts  summarize  themselves  in  a  single 
event.  In  this  connection  let  the  teacher  read 
Burke's  oration  on  Conciliation  with  the  American 
Colonies,  which  gives  a  remarkably  lifelike  picture 
of  the  people  in  the  thirteen  states. 

In  the  sixth  grade  children  should  begin  to  acquire 


146  SPECIAL  METHOD   IN   HISTORY 

ability  in  using  books,  in  collecting  and  arranging 
facts  on  a  given  topic.  Certain  books  can  be  put 
into  their  hands  to  be  studied  as  texts,  others  are 
rather  to  be  used  as  references.  The  teacher  in 
assigning  the  lesson  should  give  explicit  directions 
how  to  use  books  of  reference.  To  assign  historical 
topics  without  definite  instruction  as  to  books  and 
particular  parts  of  books  required  is  a  misuse  of 
children's  time.  It  is  very  important  to  learn  how 
to  use  books,  as  well  as  to  get  their  contents.  The 
discussion  of  previously  assigned  topics  in  the  class 
may  be  made  of  such  a  character  as  to  bring  the 
various  facts  and  judgments  into  proper  relation.  It 
is  here  that  causal  connections  should  be  seen, 
the  proper  sequence  worked  out,  and  the  relative 
importance  of  events  judged.  There  are  also  many 
places  in  the  sixth  grade  where  the  teacher,  from  a 
fuller  knowledge  and  a  riper  experience,  can  afford 
to  present  a  topic  in  clear  and  vivid  form,  closing 
with  a  restatement  of  it  from  the  children. 

J.  E.  Lloyd  says :  "  It  is  the  business  of  the 
teacher,  by  his  vigorous  and  individual  treatment 
of  the  subject,  to  conquer  that  fatal  tendency  to 
routine  which  is  the  ruin  of  history  teaching.  For 
this  reason  I  hold  that  he  should  open  up  each  topic 
himself,  should  introduce  the  pupil  to  it,  pointing 
out,  first  its  salient  features,  and  afterwards  its 
difficulties :  the  scholar  should  not  be  left  to  plough 
what  is  for  him  virgin  soil  without  assistance.  Th«* 


SIXTH   GRADE   IN  HISTORY  147 

inclination  to  mechanical  work  may  be  with  advan- 
tage corrected  by  teaching  through  the  eye  as  well 
as  the  ear :  the  blackboard  should  be  brought  into 
constant  requisition  for  illustrative  diagrams :  the 
geography  incident  to  the  history  lesson  should  be 
elucidated  with  the  aid  of  wall  maps,  both  flat  and 
moulded  to  represent  physical  features :  photo- 
graphs, prints,  coins,  and  archaeological  relics  from 
the  school  museum  should  be  brought  into  use. 

"  But,  while  much  is  required  of  the  teacher,  it  is 
equally  necessary  that  the  pupil  should  not  be  merely 
receptive.  The  history  lesson  should  not  be,  what 
I  have  known  the  science  lesson  to  be  in  some  cases, 
an  entertainment  kindly  provided  by  the  teacher, 
which  relieved  the  tedium  of  severer  studies,  and 
only  asked  from  the  pupil  that  he  should  act  as 
spectator.  There  should  be  much  questioning,  the 
power  of  making  valid  comparisons  should  be  devel- 
oped, and  the  scholar  should  be  taught  to  give  clear 
and  accurate  expression  to  his  opinions." 

We  are  justified  at  this  juncture  in  insisting  upon 
the  teacher's  deeper  knowledge  of  the  colonial 
period.  He  should  have  read  a  number  of  books 
which  the  children  could  not  be  expected  to  use. 
The  large  secondary  histories  should  be  in  part,  at 
least,  familiar  to  him.  The  biographies  of  the 
Statesmen's  series,  the  Commonwealth  series  of 
State  histories,  Parkman's  narratives  of  the  French 
regime,  John  Fiske's  books  on  colonial  history,  are 


148  SPECIAL  METHOD   IN   HISTORY 

exceedingly  interesting  and  inspiring  to  a  teacher. 
They  cannot  all  be  read  at  once,  but  from  time  to 
time,  and  in  leisure  hours,  these  intensely  interesting 
and  valuable  books  will  be  found  to  greatly  stimulate 
a  teacher  without  burdening  him.  The  knowledge 
thus  acquired  is,  of  course,  a  reserve  fund  to  be 
drawn  upon,  here  and  there,  as  occasion  may  re- 
quire ;  not  a  collective  mass  of  learning  with  which 
to  flood  the  children  and  waste  their  time. 

An  examination  of  the  American  historical  litera- 
ture, prescribed  in  the  reading  of  the  sixth  grade, 
will  show  that  the  regular  reading  exercises  may 
contribute  much  to  the  enlargement  and  enrichment 
of  the  history  studies.  "  The  Courtship  of  Miles 
Standish,"  "Grandfather's  Chair,"  "The  Gentle 
Boy,"  "  Giles  Corey,"  Hawthorne's  "  Biographical 
Stories,"  "The  Sketch  Book,"  and  the  "Autobiog- 
raphy of  Franklin "  deal  directly  with  colonial  life, 
and  several  of  the  books  of  history  story  do  the 
same.  This  is  one  of  the  best  illustrations  we  can 
have  of  the  powerful  reinforcement  of  history 
through  classic  readings. 

The  readings  derived  from  other  European  coun- 
tries give  a  still  further  enlargement  to  historical 
knowledge.  A  very  large  proportion  of  the  history 
that  comes  to  the  children  of  the  common  school 
must  come  to  them  through  these  supplementary 
and  voluntary  readings. 

The  course  of  study  in  history  can  never  be  loaded 


SIXTH  GRADE  IN  HISTORY  149 

up  with  any  very  large  amount  of  required  work 
along  these  historical  lines.  A  few  chief  topics  can 
be  treated  in  an  interesting  way,  and  the  children 
may  be  encouraged  to  use  the  school  library  and 
to  employ  their  own  leisure  hours  at  home  in  extend- 
ing and  enriching  their  knowledge  of  history  and 
literature. 

Many  of  the  finest  literary  products  appropriate 
to  school  children  have,  fortunately,  this  marked 
historical  interest  and  character,  and  the  taste  for 
this  kind  of  good  reading  should  be  the  goal  of 
the  teacher's  efforts  with  many  children.  The 
selections  of  historical  literature  in  this  course  of 
study  form  only  a  part  of  the  great  body  of  good 
literature  with  which  children  should  become  ac- 
quainted during  their  school  years. 

The  chapters  containing  the  Course  of  Study  and 
the  List  of  Books  arranged  according  to  grades 
should  be  consulted  to  see  how  abundant  and 
excellent  are  the  historical  and  classical  readings 
which  may  directly  supplement  and  strengthen  the 
classroom  work. 

Many  children  of  good  capacity  and  of  a  natural 
turn  toward  this  class  of  readings  will  find  in  them 
a  means  of  intellectual  and  social  expansion  and  a 
capital  resource  for  leisure  hours. 


CHAPTER  V 

HISTORY    IN    THE   SEVENTH   GRADE 

AT  the  beginning  of  the  seventh  grade  three  large 
topics  of  European  history  are  treated.  The  first  of 
the  three  terms  of  the  year  can  be  profitably  given  to 
these  topics :  The  Reformation,  the  Puritan  revolution 
in  England,  and  the  French  monarchy  —  large  and 
difficult  topics  to  deal  with  in  the  seventh  grade. 

In  dealing  with  the  Reformation  there  is  danger 
of  awakening  religious  controversies.  And  yet  the 
Reformation  has  powerfully  influenced  the  whole  of 
modern  history,  and  especially  those  parts  of  it  which 
led  to  the  settlement  of  America.  The  conflict  be- 
tween Luther  and  Rome,  and  later  between  Protes- 
tant and  Catholic  nations,  should  be  handled  in  an 
unpartisan  manner.  The  better  purposes  and  ten- 
dencies of  both  parties  to  the  conflict  should  be 
emphasized,  and  the  weaknesses  on  both  sides  exposed 
with  a  fair  but  charitable  spirit.  The  main  purpose 
is  to  get  an  interesting  view  of  a  few  men  like  Luther, 
Leo  X,  Charles  V,  Loyola,  Gustavus  Adolphus,  and 
Henry  VIII. 

It  is  quite  possible  that  in  many  schools  the  Refor- 
150 


HISTORY   IN  THE  SEVENTH   GRADE  151 

mation  cannot  yet  be  treated  as  an  historical  topic, 
in  a  fair-minded  way,  and  will  have  to  be  omitted. 

The  Puritan  development  and  revolution  in  Eng- 
land produced  such  a  profound  and  determining 
influence  in  America  that  it  needs  to  be  understood 
by  Americans,  more  perhaps  than  any  other  part 
of  English  history.  It  may  be  fairly  questioned 
whether  seventh-grade  children  can  grasp  enough 
of  its  real  meaning  to  get  out  of  it  a  culture  value. 
But,  assuming  that  they  can,  it  is  a  very  interesting 
problem  to  inquire  how  they  can  best  approach  it. 
Usually  it  has  been  supposed  that  a  few  lessons 
should  be  given  to  the  Puritan  revolution  as  a  prepa- 
ration and  means  of  appreciating  the  great  Puritan 
exodus  from  England  to  America  in  the  first  half  of 
the  seventeenth  century;  the  chronological  and  causal 
sequence  which  is  usually  followed  in  history  would 
also  suggest  this  order.  But  it  has  been  often  ob-i 
served  by  thinkers  that  the  pedagogical  order  is  the/ 
reverse  of  the  logical  and  causal.  Instead  of  study- 
ing English  Puritanism  as  an  approach  to  the  better 
understanding  of  American  Puritanism,  it  may  be 
better  to  begin  at  home  with  a  study  of  American 
Puritans  as  a  means  of  better  understanding  Eng- 
lish Puritans.  In  fact,  the  pedagogical  argument 
is  very  strong  in  favor  of  the  latter  procedure. 
American  Puritanism  is  not  only  much  nearer  home 
to  an  American  child,  being  a  very  prominent  part 
of  our  own  life  and  history,  but  it  is  very  much 


I$2  SPECIAL  METHOD  IN   HISTORY 

simpler  than  English  Puritanism.  It  is  not  difficult 
for  a  child  to  understand  the  life  of  the  Puritans  in 
the  small  settlements  at  Plymouth  and  Boston.  In 
England  the  surrounding  conditions  are  tenfold  more 
complex.  There  are  kings  and  lords  and  parliaments, 
and  all  sorts  of  political,  social,  and  religious  con- 
troversies. The  striking  traits  of  the  Puritans  stand 
out  in  the  New  England  settlements  with  an  un- 
mistakable clearness  and  simplicity  dominating  the 
whole  life.  If  a  person  wished  to  spell  out  the  mean- 
ing of  Puritanism  in  England,  he  would  find  the  alpha- 
bet of  it  in  New  England.  This  alphabet  the  children 
have  learned  in  the  sixth  grade,  and  have  traced  out 
further  its  results  in  colonial  history  with  its  spirit 
of  self-government  in  political  and  religious  affairs. 
With  this  concrete,  and  what  might  be  called  experi- 
mental, knowledge  of  Puritanism  in  America  on  a 
small  scale,  the  child  will  be  the  better  qualified  to 
interpret  the  men  and  forces  at  work  during  the 
Puritan  revolution  in  England. 

The  same  thing  is  true  with  regard  to  the  French. 
In  the  study  of  French  explorers,  priests,  and  settlers 
in  Canada  and  along  the  Great  Lakes,  children  have  a 
much  better  chance  to  understand  French  character 
than  they  could  have  by  studying  French  history  in 
France  itself,  with  its  complexities  of  government  and 
society.  French  life  in  America  was  simple  and 
unconstrained,  and  gave  unmistakable  proof  of  its 
natural  bent.  After  studying  the  French  colonists 


HISTORY   IN  THE  SEVENTH   GRADE  153 

in  America,  therefore,  we  can  the  better  appreciate 
the  French  in  their  old  home. 

For  the  seventh  grade  we  select  in  American 
history  the  period  from  the  close  of  the  last  French 
and  Indian  War  to  the  adoption  of  the  Constitution. 
The  twenty-six  years  from  1763  to  1789  constitute 
an  epoch  of  surprising  interest  in  American  history. 
Much  time  and  attention  have  always  been  paid  to 
the  Revolution,  but  we  shall  wish  to  give  an  equal 
attention  to  a  review  of  near  and  remoter  causes 
which  led  up  to  the  Revolution,  and  to  those  swift- 
following  results  which  led  on  to  the  adoption  of  the 
Constitution. 

The  proper  treatment  of  this  period,  like  that  of  all 
other  important  periods  of  American  history,  cannot 
be  accomplished  in  a  compendious  text-book  designed 
to  cover  in  one  or  in  two  years  the  whole  history  of 
our  country  from  the  time  of  Columbus  to  the  present. 
Not  even  a  narrative  and  biographical  history,  sup- 
ported by  good  maps  and  pictures,  though  written 
in  the  best  style  of  a  master,  can  accomplish  this 
result  in  one  or  two  years.  To  produce  the  right 
effect,  American  history  should  be  distributed  through 
intermediate  and  grammar  grades  so  that  a  child  can 
grow  up  with  it.  The  purpose  of  this  study  is  not 
fulfilled  by  gaining  a  barren  mastery  of  many  facts. 
The  lessons  of  life  taught  by  our  history  should  be 
keenly  felt.  The  motives  and  impulses  of  men  in 
the  midst  of  stirring  struggles  should  be  appreciated. 


154  SPECIAL  METHOD   IN   HISTORY 

The  limited  period  which  we  have  selected  for  the 
seventh  grade  has  the  elements  of  greatness  in  it, 
a  righteous  cause  and  a  mighty  spirit  of  achievement, 
leaders  of  such  integrity,  forethought,  and  spirit  as 
the  world  has  scarcely  seen  excelled.  Why  should 
we  hurry  children  past  these  events  as  an  express 
train  sweeps  by  mile-posts  and  stations.  The  pas- 
sengers see  the  landscapes  whirl  by,  and  catch  the 
name  of  an  occasional  station.  This  is  not  history 
nor  education  in  any  true  sense.  On  the  contrary, 
we  can  afford  to  stop  and  live  among  the  people  of 
a  hundred  and  thirty  years  ago,  till  we  know  their 
surroundings  and  catch  their  spirit.  We  should  sit 
down  b^them  at  the  fireside  or  in  the  camp,  hear 
them  argue  and  plead  in  the  courts  or  the  legislature, 
and  travel  with  them  on  long  distances  over  bad 
roads. 

In  two  ways  we  may  gain  time  for  the  right  study 
of  this  epoch.  First  by  limiting  our  attention  during 
a  school  year  to  such  a  brief  period  which,  however, 
is  well  suited  to  instruct  and  attract  seventh-grade 
pupils.  Second,  by  selecting  only  a  few  of  the  more 
important  and  typical  phases  and  events  of  even  this 
short  period  for  elaborate  examination  and  detailed 
study.  The  whole  purpose  is  to  get  deep  into  the 
understanding  and  spirit  of  our  history  rather  than 
to  spread  out  superficially  over  its  whole  area.  We 
shall  select  a  few  of  the  chief  movements  and  cam- 
paigns of  the  Revolution,  and  enter  into  a  full  narra- 


HISTORY  IN  THE  SEVEN! H  GRADE      155 

rive  of  the  events  clustering  around  these  centres. 
The  narrative  should  be  enriched  with  the  biographi- 
cal facts  and  with  the  scenery  which  can  throw  these 
pivotal  events  into  a  strong  light.  In  the  same  way 
two  or  three  of  the  chief  stages  leading  up  to  the 
adoption  of  the  Constitution  will  be  travelled  over. 
By  selecting  a  few  central  topics  and  by  gathering 
full  descriptive  materials  upon  them,  we  shall  have 
more  fruitful  results  than  by  memorizing  all  the 
important  and  many  unimportant  events. 

Teachers  are  a  little  slow  to  recognize  the  advan- 
tage of  discussing  a  few  important  topics  with  an 
interesting  wealth  of  detail.  John  Fiske,  in  his 
series  of  books  on  American  history,  has  given  to 
teachers  a  brilliant  illustration  of  the  value  of  this 
method.  Fiske  had  a  remarkable  faculty  for  throw- 
ing the  few  essential  problems  of  history  into  prom- 
inence, and  for  clothing  them  in  the  garment  of 
attractiveness  and  power.  By  focussing  his  illustra- 
tions and  descriptions  upon  a  chosen  few  ideas  and 
events  he  gave  them  a  powerful  and  attractive  illumi- 
nation. His  two  works  on  the  American  Revolution 
(two  volumes)  and  the  "  Critical  Period  of  American 
History"  (the  very  period  we  are  now  discussing) 
are  models  of  this  style  of  historical  presentation. 
They  are  not  thick,  cumbersome  books,  to  frighten 
a  teacher  with,  but  transparently  simple  and  lumi- 
nous, with  interesting  illustration  of  chief  topics. 
They  are  hardly  the  books  for  children  of  this  grade, 


156  SPECIAL  METHOD   IN   HISTORY 

and  yet  they  are  an  armory  from  which  the  teachei 
may  equip  himself  with  the  fittest  knowledge  re- 
sources of  a  skilful  instructor.  Fiske's  text-book  for 
grammar  grades  is  nowhere  nearly  so  good,  because 
it  is  an  attempt  to  condense  American  history  for 
children  —  an  impossible  undertaking. 

Another  excellent  book  to  open  the  eyes  of  teachers 
to  the  value  of  the  few  essentials  treated  in  a  lively 
manner,  is  Judson's  "  The  Growth  of  the  American 
Nation."  This  is  an  attempt  to  leave  out  as  many 
of  the  so-called  important  facts  of  our  history  as  pos- 
sible, in  order  to  get  the  really  important  events  and 
persons  into  striking  profile  before  the  eye. 

Mace's  excellent  book,  "  Method  in  History,"  is  a 
searching  inquiry  into  the  dominant  and  essential 
things  in  American  history.  It  will  surely  lead  the 
teacher  out  of  the  chaos  of  particular  and  unorgan- 
ized facts  accumulated  in  text-books  to  those  bold 
headlands  from  which  he  can  get,  from  time  to  time, 
a  broad  and  simple  survey  of  the  stream  of  history ; 
as  when  one  stands  on  the  high  projecting  front  of 
Lookout  Mountain,  one  may  gain  a  picturesque  and 
sweeping  survey  of  the  course  of  the  Tennessee 
River,  with  its  environing  mountain  ridges. 

Let  the  teacher  beware,  however,  of  making  Mace's 
book  a  text  for  high  school  or  Normal  school  stu- 
dents. It  is,  in  fact,  a  condensed  body  of  generaliza- 
tions, strong  and  nourishing  meat  for  those  already 
possessing  a  large  store  of  clear  knowledge  of  Ameri- 


HISTORY  IN  THE  SEVENTH  GRADE  157 

can  history,  but  sawdust  and  ashes  to  young  people 
innocent  of  the  facts  of  history. 

In  order  to  bring  out  the  point  for  which  we  are 
contending,  with  unmistakable  clearness,  we  will  say 
that  the  writer  of  a  text-book  in  history  for  the  com- 
mon school,  and  also  the  teacher  who  uses  it,  needs 
to  be  both  a  philosopher  and  a  poet ;  (i)  philosopher 
enough  to  sift  out  the  few  great  centralizing  ideas  of 
history;  (2)  poet  enough  to  clothe  each  of  these 
ideas  with  the  rich  garniture  of  concrete  imagery, 
simple  illustration,  and  human  feeling ;  what  is  com- 
monly called  the  detail  and  coloring  of  the  picture. 

The  first  great  topic  for  study  consists  in  a  re- 
survey  of  the  historical  causes  leading  up  to  the 
American  Revolution.  This  furnishes  an  excellent 
standpoint  from  which  to  view,  first,  the  history  of 
the  English  colonies  in  America,  and  secondly,  the 
Puritan  revolution  in  England  which  gave  such  a 
powerful  impulse  to  the  colonization  of  America. 

A  few  of  the  leading  points  we  will  pass  in  review. 
The  religious  persecutions  in  Europe,  which  led  to 
the  settlement  of  New  England  and  the  middle  colo- 
nies, developed  in  these  emigrants  a  very  powerful 
spirit  of  freedom  and  independence.  During  the 
early  years  of  their  settlement  also  they  were  left 
alone  to  take  care  of  themselves  to  such  an  extent 
that  they  developed  a  pronounced  democratic  spirit 
and  a  convincing  experience  in  self-government. 
The  local  governing  bodies  created  by  them  levied 


158  SPECIAL   METHOD   IN   HISTORY 

taxes  upon  them  and  became  more  and  more  the 
chief  means  of  maintaining  the  popular  rights.  On 
the  other  hand,  their  frequent  quarrels  with  the  royal 
governors  developed  a  successful  resistance  to  obnox- 
ious laws  and  rulers.  Almost  every  one  of  the  colo- 
nies had  experience  of  the  conflict  of  their  own 
representatives  with  tyrannical  governors.  As  the 
colonies  grew  in  importance  and  their  commerce 
became  extensive,  the  trade  restrictions  imposed  upon 
them  by  England  in  the  form  of  navigation  laws 
were  vexatious  and  injurious.  A  vigorous  system  of 
smuggling  was  carried  on  by  the  colonial  sailors, 
merchants,  and  shipowners,  in  their  trade  with  the 
West  Indies  and  with  other  countries.  In  his  speech 
on  conciliation  with  America,  Burke  gives  a  vivid 
and  enthusiastic  description  of  the  bold  sailors  and 
sea  captains  engaged  in  the  whale  fisheries. 

From  the  very  beginning  of  the  settlements  the 
spirit  of  self-reliance  was  cultivated  in  the  most  rigor- 
ous fashion  in  defending  themselves  against  the 
severities  of  a  harsh  climate,  and  the  hostility  of 
fierce  tribes  of  Indians.  Later  on,  during  the  various 
French  and  Indian  wars,  they  not  only  cultivated  the 
military  spirit  but  discovered  also  the  weak  points 
in  British  soldiers,  and  the  inefficiency  of  British 
generals. 

The  uniform  attitude  of  the  British  government 
toward  America  was  shown  in  a  desire  to  exploit  the 
colonies  by  turning  their  commerce  and  resources 


HISTORY   IN  THE  SEVENTH   GRADE  159 

into  British  trade  and  revenue.  The  general  ten- 
dency in  America,  on  the  contrary,  was  in  the  direc- 
tion of  a  very  bold  and  even  reckless  assertion  of 
liberty.  The  teacher  who  wishes  to  get  a  clear  and 
incisive  survey  of  the  situation  in  1775,  should  read 
Burke's  "Conciliation  with  the  Colonies."  Burke 
says :  "  In  this  character  of  the  Americans,  a  love  of 
freedom  is  the  predominating  feature  which  marks 
and  distinguishes  the  whole;  and  as  an  ardent  is 
always  a  jealous  affection,  your  colonies  become  sus- 
picious, restive,  and  untractable  whenever  they  see 
the  least  attempt  to  wrest  from  them  by  force,  or 
shuffle  from  them  by  chicane,  what  they  think  the 
only  advantage  worth  living  for.  This  fierce  spirit 
of  liberty  is  stronger  in  the  English  colonies  probably 
than  in  any  other  people  of  the  earth,  and  this  from 
a  great  variety  of  powerful  causes ;  which,  to  under- 
stand the  true  temper  of  their  minds  and  the  direction 
which  this  spirit  takes,  it  will  not  be  amiss  to  lay 
open  somewhat  more  largely." 

The  system  of  taxation  imposed  by  England  upon 
the  colonies,  of  which  that  on  tea  was  a  small  rem- 
nant, was  quite  sufficient  to  kindle  this  fierce  spirit  of 
liberty  into  opposition. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  seventh  grade  our  course 
of  study  provides  three  topics  from  European  history, 
one  of  which,  the  Puritan  revolution  in  England, 
furnishes  a  good  opportunity  to  review  that  period  of 
English  history  which  has  most  powerfully  influenced 


I6O  SPECIAL  METHOD   IN   HISTORY 

American  history.  Burke  says  :  "  The.  colonies  emi- 
grated from  you  when  this  part  of  your  character 
(the  spirit  of  freedom)  was  most  predominant;  and 
they  took  this  bias  and  direction  the  moment  they 
parted  from  your  hands.  They  are  therefore  not 
only  devoted  to  liberty  but  liberty  according  to 
English  ideas  and  English  principles."  The  period 
referred  to  here  by  Burke  is  that  of  the  Puritan  revo- 
lution in  England.  Charles  I,  in  the  effort  to  rule 
his  people  and  levy  taxes  without  a  Parliament, 
brought  on  this  desperate  struggle  with  his  people. 
There  is  no  doubt  but  that  Charles  was  making  a 
direct  assault  upon  the  common  rights  of  English- 
men by  taxing  them  without  their  consent,  by  im- 
prisonment and  death  without  trial,  in  fact  by  an 
arbitrary  determination  to  have  his  own  way  without 
let  or  hindrance.  But  under  the  leadership  of  such 
men  as  Pym  and  Hampden,  and  later  of  Cromwell, 
this  effect  of  royal  tyranny  brought  on  a  war  which 
resulted  in  Charles's  own  overthrow  and  death,  and 
the  Puritans  under  Cromwell  triumphed.  Undoubt- 
edly England  was  fighting  the  great  battle  of  the 
world  for  free  parliamentary  government.  It  will  be 
of  much  interest  to  compare  the  points  in  contro- 
versy with  those  which  rose  at  the  beginning  of  the 
American  Revolution.  The  latter  was  also  brought 
on  by  a  conflict  over  taxation,  and  England  claimed 
the  right  to  remove  Americans  to  England  for  trial. 
Judson,  in  "The  Growth  of  the  American  Nation," 


HISTORY  IN  THE  SEVENTH  GRADE  i6l 

says :  "  The  colonists  were  willing,  if  the  king  should 
ask  them  for  aid,  to  appropriate  liberally  of  their 
resources  for  that  purpose.  But  they  declared  that 
Parliament  had  no  legal  right  to  tax  them  at  all. 
Taxation  without  representation  was  against  the  fun- 
damental rights  of  Englishmen,  and  as  they  had  no 
representative  in  Parliament,  it  followed  that  the 
only  legal  way  to  levy  taxes  was  by  act  of  the  various 
colonial  legislatures. 

"  Franklin  carried  the  argument  further.  He 
showed  that  the  colonies  had  all  been  established 
in  the  royal  domain  under  direct  charter  of  the 
crown,  and  in  no  case  by  act  of  Parliament.  Hence, 
he  declared,  the  colonies  were  joined  to  England  only 
by  the  crown,  as  were  Jersey,  Guernsey,  Ireland,  and 
Scotland  before  the  union,  and  therefore  the  only 
legal  taxation  was  by  the  colonial  legislatures  on 
request  of  the  crown." 

It  has  been  frequently  observed  that  Washington 
and  the  patriots  were  simply  continuing  in  America 
the  struggle  for  English  rights  which  Hampden  had 
maintained  in  England. 

In  handling  the  Puritan  revolution  in  England  we 
may  also  discuss  the  religious  principles  of  the  Puri- 
tans during  the  Commonwealth,  and  compare  them 
with  the  Puritans  of  New  England.  It  is  interesting 
also  to  observe  that  Virginia  sided  with  the  royalists, 
partly  because  of  the  aristocratic  class  of  English 
gentry  in  Virginia,  and  partly  because  of  the  Episco- 


1 62  SPECIAL  METHOD  IN  HISTORY 

pal  church  tendencies  of  that  colony.  Moreover,  the 
general  spirit  of  independence  and  liberty  which 
manifested  itself  so  boldly  in  Cromwell's  time  has  a 
striking  resemblance  to  the  free  spirit  of  the  Ameri- 
cans in  the  Revolution. 

It  will  not  be  far  out  of  the  way  to  assert  that  in 
the  Revolution  the  Americans  were  fighting  the 
world's  battle  of  freedom,  and  were  simply  continu- 
ing in  a  more  advanced  stage  the  development  of 
the  Puritan  revolution  in  England. 

If  we  find  time  in  seventh  grade  to  give  an  ac- 
count of  the  Protestant  Reformation  in  Europe,  we 
shall  be  able  to  go  back  one  step  further  to  the 
fountain  and  source  of  religious  and  political  free- 
dom in  modern  times,  to  the  life  and  work  of 
Luther. 

In  approaching  the  outbreak  of  the  American 
Revolution,  the  life  of  Samuel  Adams  furnishes  an 
extremely  interesting  and  concrete  example  of  the 
spirit  of  American  freedom  at  this  time.  He  was 
the  head  and  front  of  every  movement  for  resisting 
the  efforts  of  England  to  impose  upon  the  colonies. 
The  teacher  at  least  should  read  thoroughly  Hos- 
mer's  "  Life  of  Samuel  Adams,"  which  will  enable 
him  to  live  over  again  that  famous  series  of  events 
which  led  on  to  the  break  with  England.  It  has 
been  said  that  Boston  at  this  time  was  the  most  im- 
portant city  in  the  world,  and  that  Samuel  Adams 
was  far  away  the  leading  man  in  Boston.  It  is  for- 


HISTORY   IN  THE  SEVENTH   GRADE  163 

tunate  that  we  have  at  the  entrance-way  to  the  Rev- 
olution such  a  stirring  and  instructive  biography  of  a 
man  who  was  himself  the  chief  agent  in  bringing  on 
the  crisis. 

In  the  Revolutionary  War  itself  we  desire  to  pick 
out  a  few  important  events,  campaigns,  and  biogra- 
phies, for  thorough  and  interesting  study. 

We  have  no  desire  to  emphasize  the  bloody  and 
destructive  work  of  war ;  but  if  we  study  it  at  all,  let 
us  get  deep  impressions,  not  mere  scratches  on  the 
memory.  A  few  fundamental  ideas  brought  out  with 
great  distinctness  and  rooted  in  a  groundwork  of 
well-organized  and  related  facts  will  be  very  fruitful 
in  a  child's  thought  and  life.  The  tracing  of  causal 
relations  is  vital  to  every  lesson.  The  spirit,  incen- 
tive, and  hardihood  of  the  soldiery  should  be  appre- 
ciated; also  the  qualities  of  the  leaders  in  camp  or 
in  congress. 

The  reform  called  for  in  teaching  American  his- 
tory is  like  that  already  adopted  in  physics  and 
chemistry  for  high  schools.  The  old  plan  was  to 
spend  a  short  term  of  three  months  on  a  systematic 
outline  of  all  the  chief  topics  of  chemistry  or  physics, 
barely  touching  each  one.  The  plan  now  used  in 
the  best  schools  is  to  spend  three  or  more  terms 
upon  one  of  these  studies,  and  build  up  experimen- 
tally and  inductively  with  plenty  of  illustrative  ex- 
amples a  solid  basis  of  real  knowledge,  without  much 
effort  at  scientific  completeness  in  the  whole  subject. 


164  SPECIAL  METHOD   IN    HISTORY 

In  history  also  we  need  to  extend  the  instruction 
over  a  much  longer  school  period,  and  enrich  it  with 
interesting  illustrations ;  we  may  make  it  more  real 
and  tangible  by  tracing  and  combining  causes  and 
by  collecting  a  wealth  of  appropriate  details.  We 
may  select  for  this  purpose  important  central  topics 
whose  significance  is  seen  by  well-chosen  compari- 
son, and  by  tracing  causal  relations  with  the  past. 

Some  such  brief  outline  as  the  following  may  serve 
to  indicate  the  leading  topics.  The  events  about 
Boston  till  the  evacuation,  the  struggle  for  New 
York,  the  Declaration  of  Independence,  the  retreat 
through  New  Jersey,  Burgoyne's  invasion,  Washing- 
ton at  Valley  Forge,  Cornwallis's  campaign  at  the 
South,  the  financial  condition  at  the  close  of  the  war, 
the  life  and  character  of  Washington  as  shown  dur- 
ing the  difficult  trials  of  the  Revolution. 

We  are  again  fortunate  in  having  the  life  of  Wash- 
ington to  serve  as  a  centre  of  influence  and  interest 
in  treating  the  leading  topics  of  the  war.  Scudder's 
"  Life  of  Washington,"  especially  that  part  of  it  deal- 
ing with  the  Revolution,  may  serve  as  an  excellent 
text-book  for  this  period  of  history.  Fiske's  "War 
of  Independence  "  is  also  one  of  the  best  books  on 
this  topic.  Fiske-Irving's  "  Life  of  Washington  " 
is  full  of  concrete  and  interesting  matter.  If  the 
teacher  can  secure  a  thoughtful  study  and  reading  of 
such  books  during  the  year,  and  by  means  of  choice 
references  and  source  materials,  maps,  and  plans  of 


HISTORY  IN  THE  SEVENTH   GRADE  165 

battles,  can  focus  the  attention  upon  the  central 
topics  indicated,  he  will  be  able  to  produce  serious 
and  absorbing  thought  upon  these  problems.  The 
biographies  of  Washington  and  Samuel  Adams, 
besides  the  strong  personal  interest  which  they 
awaken,  are  valuable  also  because  they  represent  so 
well  the  two  prominent  colonies,  Virginia  and  Massa- 
chusetts, in  the  character  of  the  Puritan  and  the  Vir- 
ginia gentleman.  Samuel  Adams,  more  than  any  one 
else,  led  Massachusetts  into  and  through  this  gigantic 
struggle.  Washington  was  first  of  all  a  Virginian  in 
heart  and  sympathy,  but  grew  into  the  full  stature  of 
an  American  patriot,  who  grasped  the  whole  situation 
and  rose  to  a  worthy  leadership  of  the  young  nation. 
One  of  the  best  examples  of  a  large  historical 
topic  which  furnishes  a  simple  unit  of  thought  is 
Burgoyne's  invasion.  A  full  and  interesting  treat- 
ment of  this  single  campaign  would  bring  out  in  a 
striking  way  the  advantage  of  concentration  of  time 
and  effort  upon  such  a  topic.  S.  A.  Drake's  mono- 
graph of  142  pages,  upon  this  campaign,  forms  a 
very  good  basis  for  such  a  study.  Two  or  three 
weeks  spent  upon  this  topic  would  unearth  a  great 
body  of  intensely  interesting  material.  The  war 
would  become  a  sharp  reality.  The  pride  and  the 
high  hopes  of  the  British  in  setting  out,  the  splen- 
did pageant  of  an  English  army  moving  up  Lake 
Champlain,  capturing  Ticonderoga,  with  strong 
hopes  of  pushing  on  successfully  to  New  York: 


166  SPECIAL  METHOD   IN   HISTORY 

on  the  other  hand,  the  rousing  of  the  New  York  and 
New  England  yeomanry,  the  presence  and  danger  of 
Indian  allies,  the  splendid  victory  at  Bennington,  the 
stratagems  on  the  Mohawk,  the  great  struggle  at 
Saratoga  and  its  results  —  all  these  elaborated  into 
their  details  and  seen  in  their  mutual  relations,  will 
give  a  much  deeper  insight  into  the  spirit  of  the 
American  people,  the  hopes  of  the  British,  and  the 
character  of  the  Indians,  than  can  ever  be  secured 
from  an  outline  history.  Such  a  single  campaign, 
intimately  studied,  is  worth  more  for  patriotism,  and 
for  knowledge  of  war  in  all  its  horrors,  distresses, 
and  glories  than  a  dozen  campaigns  epitomized  and 
memorized. 

In  discussing  the  financial  condition  at  the  close  of 
the  Revolutionary  War,  a  short  biography  of  Robert 
Morris,  the  financier  of  the  Revolution,  should  be 
given.  A  closer  examination  of  this  point  will  bring 
out  one  of  the  most  trying  difficulties  of  the  Revolu- 
tionary conflict,  that  of  supplying  the  army  with 
food,  clothing,  and  pay.  The  worthlessness  of  paper 
money,  and  the  complete  destruction  of  financial  and 
commercial  credit  cannot  be  better  explained.1 

Benjamin  Franklin's  career  in  France  during  the 
Revolutionary  War  is  also  very  picturesque,  interest- 
ing, and  important.  Children  should  be  already 
familiar  with  the  character  of  Franklin  in  colonial 

1  See  Sparks's  "  The  Men  who  made  the  Nation."  Sketch  of  Robert 
Morris. 


HISTORY  IN  THE  SEVENTH  GRADE  167 

times,  but  his  life  in  France,  and  the  masterly  per- 
sonal qualities  and  diplomacy  by  which  he  gradually 
aided  in  bringing  the  French  government  to  side 
with  the  Americans,  constitute  a  very  interesting 
story.  This  narrative  should  be  continued  up  to  the 
time  of  the  negotiation  of  the  treaty  of  peace,  in 
1783.  Another  biography  of  great  interest  to  Amer- 
icans is  that  of  Lafayette ;  his  early  life  in  France,  his 
enthusiasm  for  the  American  cause,  his  escape  to  this 
country  and  service  under  Washington,  his  promi- 
nence in  the  French  Revolution,  his  imprisonment, 
and  final  visit  to  this  country,  make  up  a  very 
romantic  story. 

We  notice  also  that  one  of  the  European  topics  for 
study  in  the  seventh  grade  is  Louis  XIV  and  the 
French  monarchy,  —  not  a  detailed  study  of  that 
difficult  period  of  French  history,  but  some  account 
of  the  extravagant  ostentation,  expensive  wars,  and 
despotism  of  the  French  monarchy ;  the  aristocracy, 
living  in  great  luxury  and  splendor  in  Paris,  and  the 
great  masses  of  the  people  miserably  poor.  In  their 
previous  studies  of  French  people  and  explorers  in 
Canada,  the  children  have  acquired  a  considerable 
insight  into  French  character.  It  is  certainly  inter- 
esting to  trace  the  causes  which  led  a  despotic  gov- 
ernment like  that  of  France  to  aid  a  free  people  like 
the  Americans  in  securing  their  independence. 

The  last  great  topic  in  seventh  grade  deals  with 
that  part  of  our  annals  which  Fiske  has  called  the 


1 68  SPECIAL  METHOD  IN  HISTORY 

"critical  period  of  American  history,"  and  which  led 
to  the  framing  and  adopting  of  the  Constitution.  No 
more  instructive  period  of  our  history  can  be  found 
than  that  which  describes  the  rivalries  which  sprang 
up  between  the  thirteen  states  as  soon  as  indepen- 
dence was  assured.  The  utter  failure  of  the  Articles 
of  Confederation  to  hold  the  colonists  together,  the 
financial  weakness  and  disgrace  of  the  whole  country, 
and  the  tendencies  toward  disunion  and  anarchy, 
help  us  to  understand  why  thoughtful  men  and 
patriots  became  more  and  more  anxious  to  establish 
some  strong  and  stable  form  of  government  which 
could  command  the  obedience  of  all  the  colonies. 

When,  finally,  the  best  representative  men  of  the 
whole  country  met  in  convention  at  Philadelphia,  it 
is  very  instructive  to  observe  how  many  divergent 
and  contradictory  opinions  were  brought  together. 
It  may  be  said  that  in  this  convention  all  the  most 
powerful  tendencies  of  American  history,  with  their 
roots  deeply  embedded  in  the  past,  were  represented. 
The  discussions  were  so  inharmonious,  and  even  hos- 
tile, that  the  best  men  for  a  long  time  despaired  of 
reaching  any  common  agreement.  When  finally  the 
Constitution  was  worked  out  and  accepted  by  a  ma- 
jority of  the  convention,  it  was  found  to  consist  of 
a  series  of  great  compromises. 

The  study  of  the  Constitutional  Convention  at  Phil- 
adelphia is  the  study  of  one  of  the  most  interesting 
and  important  events  of  the  world's  history.  To 


HISTORY  IN  THE  SEVENTH   GRADE  169 

what  extent  children  in  the  seventh  grade  can  com- 
prehend this,  depends  partly  upon  the  method  of 
treatment.  One  of  the  simplest  ways  of  comprehend- 
ing it  is  to  study  somewhat  carefully  a  few  of  the 
most  influential  men  in  the  convention,  and  get  the 
strong  individual  point  of  view  of  each ;  for  example, 
Madison,  Hamilton,  Washington,  Franklin. 

Another  important  phase  of  this  study  is  its  close 
dependency  upon  the  previous  history  of  the  country. 
The  experiences  of  the  thirteen  colonies  with  their 
local  governments  and  with  the  Articles  of  Confed- 
eration had  taught  them  many  great  lessons,  and  the 
Constitution  incorporates  many  of  these  features  into 
its  own  framework. 

So  far  as  the  children  have  really  understood 
American  history,  thus  far  they  will  find  that  the 
Constitution  is  a  sort  of  epitome  or  summing  up  of 
the  political  history  of  America.  The  Philadelphia 
convention  offers,  therefore,  one  of  the  most  ad- 
vantageous mountain  peaks,  where  we  can  stop  and 
look  back  over  the  whole  previous  history  of  the 
country  and  see  the  point  toward  which  all  leading 
events  have  tended.  Not  that  children  can  take  a 
deep  or  broad  philosophical  view  of  our  history.  But 
they  can  see  in  the  men  of  the  convention  the  repre- 
sentatives of  state  sovereignty,  and  of  federal  unity, 
the  double  representative  system,  by  states  and  by 
popular  franchise,  the  division  into  state  and  national 
prerogatives,  the  double  judicial  system,  the  recog« 


170  SPECIAL  METHOD  IN  HISTORY 

nition  of  slavery  and  the  slave  power,  and  the  pres- 
ence of  a  strong  central  executive. 

The  opportunity  which  the  study  of  the  Philadel- 
phia convention  offers  for  a  purposeful  review  of  pre- 
vious American  history,  furnishes  one  of  the  best 
illustrations  of  the  proper  plan  of  review,  namely, 
not  mere  shallow  and  formal  repetition  of  facts  pre- 
viously memorized,  but  an  examination  of  facts 
studied  before  as  great  causal  influences  which  are 
focussed  at  a  later  important  juncture  in  history, 
where  their  true  character  as  historical  forces  is  dis- 
cerned. Let  children  find  the  previous  history  of 
the  country  as  registered  in  the  Constitution. 

The  final  ratification  of  the  Constitution  by  the  peo- 
ple of  the  states,  not,  however,  without  memorable 
struggles,  as  in  New  York  and  Massachusetts,  made 
this  great  instrument  the  act  of  the  American  people. 

The  effort  to  grasp  the  meaning  of  this  great 
period  of  history  (1763-1789)  by  selecting  a  few  sali- 
ent topics  for  a  somewhat  exhaustive  study  is  based 
upon  the  conviction  that  these  apparently  complex 
materials  of  history  admit  of  great  simplification. 
Two  reasons  may  be  assigned  for  our  belief  in  this 
inherent  underlying  simplicity  in  historical  events. 
First,  the  leading  topics  set  up  for  full  study  are 
types,  and  secondly,  the  dominant  causal  idea  that 
lies  wrapped  up  in  a  series  of  great  events  is  found 
to  interpret  and  unify  many  minor  causes  which  are 
often  mistaken  for  distinct  and  separate  influences. 


HISTORY  IN  THE  SEVENTH  GRADE  171 

First,  as  to  types.  The  colonists  themselves  were 
extremely  shrewd  in  detecting  the  typical  character 
of  events.  The  little  tax  on  tea  was  nothing  in  it- 
self, but  it  was  a  perfect  type  of  all  taxes  levied 
unjustly  by  Parliament.  In  this  bagatelle  they  per- 
ceived the  whole  import  and  purpose  of  the  Tory 
government  and  party  in  England. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  British  government  was 
not  mistaken  in  regarding  Samuel  Adams  and  John 
Hancock  as  signal  types  of  all  the  Massachusetts 
rebels,  and  if  they  could  once  lay  hands  on  them,  they 
would  give  some  examples  of  punishment  which  every 
British  subject  would  perfectly  understand.  In  fact,  / 
Adams  was  such  a  perfect  representative  of  the  New 
England  spirit  of  this  time,  that  his  biography  gives 
the  very  essence  of  the  whole  struggle  against  Eng- 
land. 

In  the  same  way,  Burgoyne's  campaign,  being  so 
typical  in  character,  may  serve  as  the  chief  military 
campaign  of  the  war.  John  Paul  Jones  is  also  the 
one  naval  hero  whose  exploits  may  serve  to  illustrate 
the  vigor  of  our  sea-fighters. 

In  Washington  the  best  elements  of  the  American 
character  were  so  concentrated  and  almost  idealized 
that  Americans  have  always  contemplated  with  pleas- 
ure the  reflection  of  the  nation's  purpose  in  his  per- 
sonality. 

Second,  as  to  causes.  In  nearly  all  the  large  units 
of  study  it  is  interesting  to  sift  out  the  fundamental 


172  SPECIAL  METHOD   IN   HISTORY 

cause,  as,  for  example,  in  the  causes  of  the  Revolu 
tion,  chief  of  all  is  the  assumption  by  Parliament  of 
the  right  to  tax  the  colonies.  In  the  deliberations  of 
the  Federal  Convention  the  absolute  necessity  for  es- 
tablishing a  government  with  sovereign  power  is  the 
preeminent  cause. 

Professor  Mace  illustrates  this  point,  the  unity  of 
causes,  in  discussing  the  causes  of  the  decline  of  the 
Confederation.1 

"  i.   The  Confederation  had  no  executive  or  judicial 

department. 

"  2.    Congress  could  not  raise  an  army. 
"  3.    No  power  of  direct  or  indirect  taxation  was  given 

to  the  Confederation. 

"  4.    Congress  had  no  control  over  domestic  commerce. 
"  5.    Congress  could  not  enforce  treaties  with  other 

nations. 
"  6.   The  Confederation  operated  on  states  and  not  on 

individuals. 
"  7.   The  Articles   of   Confederation   recognized  the 

sovereignty  of  the  state. 
"  8.   Voting  in  Congress  was  by  states. 
"  9.   The  people  owed  allegiance  to  the  state  only. 

"  The  general  or  fundamental  cause  may  be  found, 
and  the  others  may  be  interpreted  with  reference  to 
it  The  careful  comparison  and  contrast  of  the 
causes  listed  above  will  show  that  the  first  eight  are 

1  "  Method  in  History,"  Mace,  p.  30. 


HISTORY  IN  THE  SEVENTH   GRADE  1/3 

closely  related  to  the  ninth  cause.  By  common  con- 
sent, when  the  colonists  transferred  their  allegiance 
from  England,  they  gave  it  on  all  domestic  concerns 
primarily  to  their  respective  colonial  governments. 
The  Continental  Congress  recognized  this  relation  in 
creating  the  Confederation  by  making  the  states,  in 
the  main,  sovereign.  Wherever  primary  allegiance 
is  placed,  there  sovereignty  will  reside.  This  shows 
that  allegiance  conditions  sovereignty,  and  that  cause 
seven  is  the  result  of  cause  nine." 

A  further  comparison  of  each  of  the  causes  as- 
signed with  cause  nine,  leads  to  the  same  result.  A 
single  cause  is  discovered,  by  reflection,  to  be  at  the 
bottom  of  what  is  usually  described  as  a  variety  of 
causes. 

Not  only  does  the  effort  to  discover  types  and 
fundamental  causes  by  comparing  events  greatly  sim- 
plify the  complex  data  of  history,  but  this  process 
disciplines  the  mind  to  self-activity  and  to  inductive 
methods  of  reasoning. 

To  put  these  separate  facts  before  the  children  and 
allow  them  to  discover  the  fundamental  unity  in  the 
type  or  in  the  deeper  cause  is  a  superior  form  of 
instruction.  The  two  best  results  of  education  are 
thus  achieved  at  the  same  time,  a  simple  organization 
of  knowledge  and  the  best  mental  discipline. 

It  will  doubtless  be  claimed  by  some  that  the  course 
which  we  have  here  prescribed  is  wholly  beyond  the 
range  of  seventh-grade  pupils.  It  should  be  remem- 


1/4  SPECIAL  METHOD   IN   HISTORY 

bered,  however,  that  these  very  topics  are  usually 
handled  now  in  the  seventh  and  eighth  grades  in 
about  one-quarter  of  the  time  which  it  is  proposed 
in  our  plan  to  give  to  them.  By  dealing  with  all 
these  subjects  concretely,  biographically,  and  by 
comparative  review  of  similar  facts  previously  stud- 
ied, by  illustrations  from  the  present  workings  of 
our  laws  and  Constitution,  and  by  giving  sufficient 
time  in  each  large  topic  for  suitable  descriptive  and 
illustrative  detail,  the  more  important  phases  of  these 
great  American  topics  can  be  well  understood  by 
grammar  grades. 

Children  in  the  seventh  grade  are  well  able  to  get 
a  full  profit  from  the  use  of  such  source  material  as 
is  furnished  by  Hart's  "  Source  Book  of  American 
History."  There  is  nothing  difficult  or  complicated 
in  the  use  of  this  source-book.  The  extracts  are 
usually  brief  and  simple,  bearing  directly  on  topics 
treated  in  the  standard  text-books,  and  neither  teacher 
nor  pupil  need  waste  any  time  in  finding  the  appro- 
priate matter.  The  teacher  should  be  definite  and 
exact  in  assigning  the  references.  Half  a  dozen  or 
less  copies  of  the  source-book  in  the  library  will 
answer  the  needs  of  a  dozen  pupils.1 

Hart  says  source  materials  "  are  to  act  as  adjuncts 
to  historical  narrative,  by  illustrating  it  and  making  it 
vivid ;  as  by  analyzing  a  few  flowers  the  young  stu- 

1  Hart's  "American  History  told  by  Contemporaries,"  in  four  volumes, 
is  extremely  valuable  as  reference  material  for  the  study  of  sources. 


HISTORY  IN  THE  SEVENTH   GRADE  175 

dent  of  botany  learns  some  plant  structure,  and 
accepts  the  rest  from  the  text-book,  so  the  student  of 
history,  by  intimate  acquaintance  with  a  few  writers 
of  contemporary  books,  finds  his  reading  in  secondary 
works  easier  to  understand. 

"  The  use  of  sources  enforces  on  the  mind  what 
ought  to  be  familiar  to  any  pupil  in  history  :  that  the 
text-book  grows  out  of  such  material,  directly  or  at 
second  hand  ;  and  that  the  knowledge  of  the  writer 
of  history  goes  no  farther  than  the  sum  of  his  sources. 
On  the  Revolution,  for  instance,  the  pupil  must  real- 
ize that  the  books  quote  only  a  few  out  of  hundreds 
of  sources,  and  that  generalization  from  narrow  bases 
is  dangerous. 

"  Sources  may  very  well  furnish  sufficient  types  of 
oft-repeated  experience :  for  instance,  from  the  text- 
book the  pupil  gets  the  impression  of  the  number  of 
voyages  of  discovery,  and  of  the  cross-relations  of 
the  Spanish,  Portuguese,  French,  English,  Dutch, 
and  Swedes  in  the  New  World  during  two  centuries. 
But  the  general  aim  and  results  of  those  voyages  are 
well  enough  set  forth  in  the  seventeen  pages  of 
Chapter  I  [of  the  'Source  Book'],  which  includes 
one  Spanish  voyage  and  one  Spanish  land  exploration, 
two  English  sea-voyages  and  one  land  exploration,  and 
one  French  exploration.  Since  it  is  a  common  expe- 
rience that  the  illustration  fixes  the  principle  in  mind, 
and  not  the  principle  the  illustration,  it  is  fair  to  ex- 
pect that  these  illustrative  voyages  will  serve  to  make 


I/O  SPECIAL  METHOD   IN   HISTORY 

vivid  the  consecutive  narrative  of  explorations  in 
general." 

Hinsdale  illustrates  well  the  value  of  such  sources. 
"  Some  years  ago  I  read  with  deep  interest  the  sec- 
tion of  an  ill-put-together  town  history,  entitled  '  The 
American  Revolution.'  The  town  was  Torrington, 
Conn.  Here  were  quotations  from  the  town  records, 
muster  rolls  of  the  militia  companies,  orders  for 
drafts,  requisitions  for  supplies,  reports  from  the 
seat  of  war,  lists  of  killed  and  wounded,  etc.,  inter- 
spersed with  some  incident,  anecdote,  or  personal 
characterization.  Following  the  tax-gatherer  on  his 
rounds ;  reading  the  frequent  calls  for  soldiers  and 
orders  for  the  militia  to  turn  out ;  observing  the 
women  at  their  heavy  tasks,  spinning  wool  and  weav- 
ing flax,  making  blankets  and  tents  for  the  army,  and 
often  gathering  the  crops  or  making  the  maple  sugar ; 
scanning  the  hard  bill  of  domestic  fare,  breakfast 
without  tea  and  dinner  without  salt  —  I  formed  a 
more  realistic  view  than  before  of  the  times  that 
tried  men's  souls."1 

Mace  sums  up  this  argument  with  illustrations  as 
follows :  — 

"  The  superiority  of  this  sort  of  material  in  the 
process  of  interpretation  may  be  understood  from 
the  following  considerations:  i.  The  facts  thus  pre- 
sented are  first-hand  —  unorganized,  and  the  student 
is  left  to  contend  with  a  real  problem  with  no  ready- 

1 "  How  to  Study  and  Teach  History,"  Hinsdale,  p.  34. 


HISTORY  IN  THE  SEVENTH  GRADE  177 

made  solution  at  hand;  he  must  work  without  the 
author's  aid.  Without  discussing  the  educational 
value  of  this  sort  of  work,  it  is  apparent  at  a  glance 
that  a  wide  difference  separates  the  direct  study  of 
the  Mayflower  Compact  from  the  study  of  a  school 
text's  statements  about  this  document.  2.  This 
direct  study  brings  immediate  contact  with  the  source 
of  truth  concerning  the  content  of  the  Compact. 
It  is  possible  that  texts  have  been  written,  whose 
authors  did  not  have  first-hand  access  to  the  material 
of  history,  but  have  written  from  another's  interpre- 
tation of  that  material.  But  what  of  it?  Simply 
this  :  the  student  of  such  a  text  will  be  still  farther 
removed  from  the  real  source  of  truth,  and  like  the 
author,  not  knowing  all  the  concrete  facts,  or  not 
knowing  them  exactly  as  they  were,  may  make 
erroneous  interpretations.  3.  Even  if  the  facts 
obtained  in  the  above  way  are  correctly  interpreted, 
there  is  yet  something  lacking  in  the  effect  produced, 
which  can  only  be  supplied  by  applying  the  process 
of  interpretation  to  original  material.  In  no  other 
way,  in  the  study  of  historical  material,  may  the 
student  get  deep  and  realistic  conceptions  of  the 
life  he  studies  —  ideas  and  passions,  motives  and 
prejudices,  and  all  those  subtle  influences  that  go  to 
make  up  concrete  public  sentiment.  Take  the  ex- 
amples of  interpretation  given  above :  how  much 
more  easily  and  correctly  could  the  student  put  the 
right  content  into  the  events  connected  with  founding 


i;8  SPECIAL  METHOD   IN   HISTORY 

Jamestown  if  he  could  read  the  motives  of  king  and 
company  in  the  charters  granted,  and  could  add  to 
these  the  opinions  of  the  settlers.  Even  the  writings 
of  John  Smith,  with  all  their  exaggerations,  would 
give  meaning  and  reality  to  these  events,  such  as 
could  come  in  no  other  way.  Again,  how  can  the 
student  get  most  easily  and  fully  into  the  minds  and 
hearts  of  the  colonial  merchants,  the  motives  and 
passions  that  swayed  them  when  organizing  the 
non-importation  associations  ?  Evidently  by  reading 
the  addresses  sent  to  king  and  Parliament  and  to 
the  colonial  legislatures ;  by  reading  the  resolutions 
of  town  meetings  in  pledging  support ;  by  studying 
the  correspondence  between  the  associations  of  dif- 
ferent towns,  and  by  following  the  newspaper  and 
pamphlet  war  that  arose  over  these  organizations 
and  their  work.  Likewise  with  the  struggle  over 
state  sovereignty,  or  any  other  phase  of  thought 
which  the  student  tries  to  reach  through  events. 
Depth  of  impression  and  richness  of  content  will 
always  come  from  this  sort  of  face-to-face  contact 
with  a  people."  J 

No  part  of  our  history  shows  a  closer  or  more 
many-sided  relation  of  the  best  literary  works  to 
historical  events  than  the  seventh-grade  material. 
Many  of  the  most  familiar  ballads,  orations,  and 
poems  of  American  literature  deal  with  Revolu- 
tionary persons  and  scenes.  We  should  bring  the 

1 "  Method  in  Hiitory,"  Mace,  p.  44. 


HISTORY   IN  THE  SEVENTH  GRADE  1/9 

history  of  this  epoch  into  hand-and-glove  companion- 
ship with  the  best  American  literature  of  the  period 
In  the  reading  lessons,  which  are  parallel  with  the 
history  in  the  seventh  grade,  we  should  read  "  Paul 
Revere's  Ride,"  "Song of  Marion's  Men,"  "Under the 
Old  Elm,"  "  Grandmother's  Story  of  Bunker  Hill," 
Webster's  Orations  at  Bunker  Hill,  Warren's  Address, 
Declaration  of  Independence,  Speech  of  John  Adams 
(Webster),  Burke's  Speech  on  the  American  War, 
Washington's  Letters,  Farewell  Address,  etc. ;  "  The 
Green  Mountain  Boys,"  "A  Ballad  of  the  Boston 
Tea  Party,"  "Lexington,"  "Old  Ticonderoga," 
Everett's  Oration  on  Washington,  etc.  The  strong, 
true  spirit  of  the  Revolutionary  patriots  nowhere  finds 
better  expression  than  in  the  graphic  word  of  the  poet, 
which  leaves  a  lasting  impress  upon  young  minds.  It 
is  the  spirit  of  our  best  American  history  that  we  wish 
to  see  live  again  in  the  hearts  and  convictions  of  the 
young.  In  literature  this  spirit  finds  the  culmina- 
tion of  its  influence  and  the  living  and  lasting  form 
which  it  creates  for  itself.  History  and  literature, 
therefore,  should  travel  together,  and  reenforce  each 
other's  teaching.  Reading  lessons  in  historical  mas 
terpieces  will  be  strongly  helped  by  previous  histori- 
cal studies,  and  the  ideas  gained  in  history  will  find 
themselves  intensified  and  reenforced  by  the  energy 
and  imagery  of  poet  and  orator.  Our  aim  is  no  less 
than  to  unite  the  influences  of  American  literature 
and  history  in  setting  into  prominence  those  persona] 


ISO  SPECIAL   METHOD   IN   HISTORY 

and  national  ideals  which  are  the  richest  heritage 
of  American  culture.  History  furnishes  the  plain, 
crude  material  which  literature  works  up  into  a 
finer  fabric.  The  biography,  history,  literature,  and 
geography  of  our  native  land  are  studies  powerful 
to  stimulate  our  youth.  On  this  broad,  geographical 
theatre,  men  of  high  purpose  and  strong  wills  have 
met  the  great  problems  of  history  and  politics,  and 
have  solved  them  with  such  wisdom  and  energy  that 
the  world  has  resounded  with  their  names  and  deeds. 
Within  the  last  fifty  years  have  risen  in  our  land  also 
half  a  dozen  poets  who  have  interpreted  the  lessons 
of  our  past  history,  and  the  hopes  and  responsi- 
bilities of  our  future  with  such  measured  strength 
and  kindling  imagery,  that  every  generous  youth 
must  feel  the  spell  and  awake  to  the  enthusiasm  of 
patriotism.  These  rich  sources  of  culture  and  char- 
acter in  our  own  American  history  and  literature 
have  been  but  meagrely  used  in  the  common  schools. 
They  possess  untold  power  to  impress  the  best  ideals 
of  country  and  of  home  upon  the  young. 


CHAPTER  VI 

f 

EIGHTH-GRADE   HISTORY 

THE  topics  assigned  to  European  history  in  the 
first  term  of  the  eighth  grade  will  be  interesting 
and  instructive  to  eighth-year  pupils,  if  handled 
orally.  The  previous  studies  in  the  geography,  his- 
tory, and  literature  of  Europe  will  prepare  the  way 
for  a  better  understanding.  We  have  no  single  text- 
book that  would  cover  this  ground,  and  long  and 
difficult  readings  should  not  be  required  of  the  chil- 
dren. Large  maps  of  Europe  and  of  the  world  will 
be  constantly  needed,  and  these  topics  will  furnish 
a  fine  opportunity  for  a  review  of  the  geography  of 
Europe  and  of  the  world. 

Nothing  approaching  a  deeper  historical  study  of 
these  topics  can  be  made,  and  yet  an  important  sig- 
nificant idea  in  each  case  can  be  worked  out. 

In  studying  American  history  since  the  adoption 
of  the  Constitution,  eighth-grade  pupils  will  meet 
some  problems  too  difficult  for  them  to  solve.  The 
web  of  our  history  becomes  more  complex  and  in- 
tricate. Eighth-grade  pupils  are  from  thirteen  to 
fifteen  years  of  age,  and  not  yet  capable  of  deep 

181 


1 82  SPECIAL   METHOD  IN   HISTORY 

and  comprehensive  thought  on  social  and  political 
affairs.  But  many  of  them  are  completing  their 
education  for  citizenship,  in  the  common  schools, 
and  in  making  our  national  history  an  important 
culture  and  character  study  through  the  several 
years  of  the  intermediate  and  grammar  grades,  we 
must  decide  what  topics  of  our  later  history  are 
calculated  to  arouse  the  thought  and  interest  of  the 
eighth-grade  pupils. 

The  American  topics  assigned  to  the  eighth  grade 
involve  greater  difficulties  than  the  history  work  of 
any  other  year  of  the  common  school.  As  we  ap- 
proach the  more  recent  topics  of  our  history,  the 
"large  and  complex  scale  of  events  increases,  and 
besides,  many  of  these  topics  are  still  in  the  region 
of  controversy  and  have  not  fallen  into  the  clear 
perspective  of  history.  Not  a  few  of  the  best 
teachers  have  avoided  the  teaching  of  nineteenth- 
century  history  because  of  this  complexity  and  un- 
settled aspect  of  recent  politics.  On  the  other  hand, 
one  of  the  chief  purposes  of  history  and  school 
studies  generally  is  to  bring  the  children  somewhere 
near  to  our  modern  problems  and  into  sympathy 
with  present  social  and  economic  life. 

During  the  four  years  preceding,  the  children 
should  have  been  drawing  deep  and  inspiriting  les- 
sons from  the  biography  and  history  of  our  earlier 
epochs.  They  have  become  interested  in  the  repre- 
sentative leaders  and  in  the  growth  of  the  country 


EIGHTH-GRADE  HISTORY  183 

and  of  its  interests.  The  spirit  of  patriotism  has 
already  become  a  conscious  impulse,  setting  up  at- 
tractive ideals  to  be  attained  by  individuals  and  by 
society.  This  love  of  country  and  deep  concern  for 
its  institutions  should  grow  slowly  and  steadily,  hav- 
ing its  roots  fed  from  the  rich,  concrete,  personal 
materials  of  history  as  detailed  in  biography,  and  in 
the  dramatic  episodes  of  political  life.  It  is  futile 
to  expect  such  fruitful  results  except  as  they  spring 
naturally  out  of  a  rich  soil  well  cultivated.  The 
short,  hothouse  methods  of  quickly  appropriating 
the  condensed  results  of  our  history  in  a  single 
term's  or  year's  course  are  thoroughly  artificial  and 
unnatural. 

The  expansion  of  our  country  under  the  Constitu- 
tion until  it  had  covered  the  better  half  of  a  conti- 
nent with  Anglo-Saxon  ideas  of  government,  school, 
and  social  order,  is  the  theme  of  this  year's  study. 
The  gigantic  growth  and  progress  of  the  nation  in 
all  essential  elements  of  greatness  will  become  a 
source  of  interest  and  pride.  The  forces  which  have 
threatened  to  check  and  mar  this  progress  need  to 
be  seen  in  their  hurtful  and  destructive  influence. 
A  few  of  the  larger  influences  which  have  wrought 
such  marvellous  results  in  the  last  hundred  years  may 
be  plainly  seen  and  understood  by  eighth-grade  chil- 
dren. The  more  intricate  problems  of  legislation, 
finance,  tariff,  taxation,  and  political  maneuvering 
and  compromise  may  be  let  alone.  We  suggest  the 


1 84  SPECIAL   METHOD   IN   HISTORY 

following  list  of  topics  upon  which  to  focus  the  chief 
attention :  — 

ffa  Organization    of    the    government    and    of    the 
finances. 

Growth  in  territory. 

Internal  improvement. 

History  and  extension  of  slavery. 

Leading  inventions  and  inventors. 

Immigration. 

The  rise  and  influence  of  political  parties. 

The  three  departments  of  our  government 

Our  system  of  revenue. 

Two  leading  campaigns  of  the  Civil  War. 

Civil  service  reform. 

Our  plan  of  work  in  this  grade  will  be  similar  to 
that  in  sixth  and  seventh  grades,  namely,  to  choose 
a  few  important  centres  of  study,  to  collect  about 
each  of  them  a  body  of  graphic  illustrative  materials, 
to  trace  the  causal  relations  between  these  centres 
and  other  important  subjects,  and  to  make  all  the 
study  more  vivid  and  realistic.  This  more  elaborate 
study  of  a  few  important  topics  allows  also  a  wider 
use  of  references,  and  cultivates  an  acquaintance  with 
other  than  text-books  and  the  method  of  using  them. 
Most  historical  subjects  have  certain  dramatic  and 
picturesque  phases  in  which  the  men  or  forces  at 
work  are  brought  out  in  more  striking  relief.  Such 
was  Webster's  appearance  in  the  senate  in  the  second 
speech  on  Foot's  resolution;  so  the  sending  of  the 


EIGHTH-GRADE  HISTORY  1 8$ 

first  telegraphic  message ;  the  completion  of  the  first 
Pacific  railway ;  Lincoln  at  Gettysburg,  Grant  and 
Lee  at  Appomattox.  It  is  well  to  dwell  upon  these 
scenes  till  they  stand  out  in  distinctive  coloring. 

Most  of  the  large  topics  selected  for  the  eighth- 
grade  history  have  a  continuous,  chronological,  and 
causal  sequence  extending,  in  some  cases,  through 
the  whole  constitutional  period,  and  much  more. 
The  growth  of  slavery  until  it  culminated  in  the  Civil 
War  and  reconstruction,  is  an  illustration  of  this  long- 
continued  sequence  of  causally  related  facts.  During 
the  eighth  grade  the  chief  stages  in  the  slavery  con- 
flict should  be  worked  out,  and  the  whole  movement 
surveyed  as  a  unit.  Not  only  so,  but  an  excellent 
review  of  slavery  during  colonial  and  Revolutionary 
times  may  be  made  so  as  to  secure  a  broad  survey  of 
this  whole  question  from  the  earliest  times  to  the 
present.  Such  a  topic  as  this,  worked  out  in  its 
relations  to  other  leading  events,  can  teach  even  to 
children  the  lesson  of  cause  and  effect  in  history.  A 
second  topic  which  has  a  continuous  development 
through  this  whole  period  and  reaches  back  into 
colonial  times  is  the  growth  of  territory.  The  series 
of  problems  raised  in  succession  by  the  steady  expan- 
sion of  population  westward  is  very  closely  connected 
with  the  greatest  affairs  in  our  history.  The  con- 
quest of  the  northwest  territory  by  Clark  during 
the  Revolution  was  soon  followed  by  the  acquisition 
of  Louisiana  and  Florida.  The  war  with  Mexico 


1 86  SPECIAL   METHOD   IN   HISTORY 

resulted  in  the  conquest  and  purchase  of  still  larger 
tracts  westward.  By  the  purchase  of  Alaska  and  the 
recent  acquisitions  of  the  Spanish-American  War,  we 
have  completed  a  series  of  great  steps  expressing  the 
forward  movement  of  the  American  people.  We 
should  study  and  compare,  one  with  another,  these 
various  additions  of  territory  gained  by  purchase  or 
by  conquest,  and  pass  judgment  in  a  fair-minded  way 
upon  the  motives  which  led  to  these  acquisitions.  In 
order  to  understand  this  whole  topic  more  perfectly, 
we  should  compare  the  later  additions  with  our  orig- 
inal territory  in  regard  to  size,  population,  and  re- 
sources. Closely  connected  with  this  enlargement  of 
territory  is  the  steady  admission  of  new  states  into 
the  Union,  by  which  a  constant  change  and  enlarge- 
ment of  the  Union  has  been  effected. 

The  other  large  topics  of  this  school  year,  such  as 
immigration,  the  rise  and  growth  of  political  parties, 
the  civil  service  reform,  the  laying  out  of  great  traffic 
routes  and  internal  improvements  contain  this  long- 
continued  causal  sequence.  Children  are  able  to 
follow  out  such  a  causal  connection  of  events  if  the 
topics  are  treated  with  sufficient  fulness,  and  if  time 
is  taken  for  proper  comparisons  and  reviews  of 
earlier  stages  in  the  series  of  events. 

In  the  seventh  grade  we  discussed  somewhat  at 
length  the  advantage  of  selecting  a  few  of  these 
great  topics  for  elaborate  treatment.  A  few  large 
units  of  thought,  centres  of  historic  interest,  have 


EIGHTH-GRADE   HISTORY  187 

great  power  to  organize  a  multitude  of  facts  and 
throw  them,  like  an  army  of  soldiers,  into  ranks  and 
files.  Professor  George  S.  Morris  gave  an  excellent 
philosophical  statement  of  the  value  of  such  wholes 
in  historical  instruction. 

"  The  first  impression  that  the  world  of  history 
produces  in  the  mind  of  the  learner  is  that  of  an 
indefinite  multitude  of  different  events.  One  event 
is  not  another.  Each  is  a  separate  fact.  Each  has 
its  separate  place  in  space  or  time,  or  both.  Each  is 
what  the  others  are  not.  .  .  .  But,  to  stop  short  with 
this  cognizance  of  the  multitude  of  facts  in  their  sep- 
aration and  difference,  not  to  see  them  in  the  unity 
of  their  relations,  is  not  to  learn  the  lesson  of  history. 
The  mind  thus  simply  filled,  or  crammed,  is  not 
instructed.  Its  sight  is  superficial ;  it  is  not  insight. 
And  the  world  of  history,  thus  viewed,  is  not  com- 
prehended as  an  orderly  world.  It  is  not  a  '  rounded 
world  '  and  '  fair  to  see.'  It  puts  intelligence  to  con- 
fusion. It  is,  indeed,  my  masters,  '  a  mad  World  ' ! 

"  History  is  not  simply  (multifarious)  events.  It  is 
the  logic  of  events.  Historic  intelligence  is  not 
merely  information  respecting  events.  It  is  the  com- 
prehension of  their  logic. 

"  Philosophy  may  be  fitly  described  as  the  science 
of  wholes.  In  the  last  resort  it  is  the  science  of  the 
whole,  as  such,  or  of  the  one  universal  drama  of  exist- 
ence in  the  midst  of  which  man  is  placed,  and  in 
which  he  actively  participates.  Now,  history,  accord- 


1 88  SPECIAL  METHOD  IN   HISTORY 

ing  to  the  familiar  aphorism,  is  '  philosophy  teaching 
by  example.'  Not  the  'example,'  taken  by  itself  as 
an  isolated  fact,  is  history.  Thus  taken,  it  is  only  a 
brute  fact  divested  of  relations,  and  offering  neither 
attraction  nor  support  to  intelligence.  History  is 
the  example,  plus  that  which  it  exemplifies.  It  is 
the  example,  plus  its  teaching.  It  is  the  '  fact '  seen 
in  the  relations  which  alone  render  it  comprehensible. 
It  is  the  fact  seen  as  part  or  member  of  an  organic 
whole,  and,  consequently,  as  exemplifying  in  its  place 
and  measure  the  law,  idea,  or  life  of  the  whole.  It  is, 
in  short,  the  fact  seen  as  the  illustration  and  phenom- 
enal incarnation  of  a  universal  and  livingly  operative 
reason,  Logos,  or  logic,  which,  interior  to  the  fact,  is 
the  ground  of  its  reality,  and,  transcending  the  par- 
ticular fact,  connects  it  with  all  other  facts,  and  so  is 
the  ground  of  its  intelligibility.  History,  taken  in  its 
broadest  sense,  is  the  object-lesson  of  philosophy.  It 
is  the  subject-matter  of  philosophy's  demonstrations. 
It  is  the  test  of  the  correctness  of  her  conclusions. 
And  true  '  history,'  in  the  narrower  or  more  common 
sense  of  this  word,  is  nothing  if  not  philosophical. 

"  Every  successful  teacher  of  history,  even  with 
the  youngest  pupils,  teaches  in  something  of  the 
philosophical  spirit,  and  with  a  method  more  or  less 
philosophical.  He  does  not,  indeed,  neglect  to  insist 
on  the  acquisition,  by  patient  mnemonic  exercise,  of 
exact  information  regarding  particular  facts ;  but  he 
manages,  at  the  same  time,  to  engage  the  learner's 


EIGHTH-GRADE   HISTORY  189 

imagination  for  the  perception  of  groups  of  facts 
viewed  as  wholes,  and  having,  as  such  wholes,  to 
some  degree,  a  specific  character,  coloring,  or  signifi- 
cance. He  makes  the  pupil  exercise  with  himself 
the  artistic  faculty  of  inward  picturing.  With  imma- 
ture students  this  is  all  that  is  possible,  and  it  is 
enough."  J 

It  is  necessary  for  the  teacher  to  single  out  these 
natural  wholes  in  history,  these  centres  of  grouping 
and  picturing,  these  rally  ing-points  of  thought  from 
which  causal  influences  can  be  traced  out,  and  larger 
comparisons  be  instituted. 

The  system  of  careful  reviews  of  previous  periods 
of  history  by  means  of  systematic  comparisons  of 
later  events  with  those  previously  studied  may  be 
admirably  illustrated  in  the  work  of  the  eighth  grade. 
In  fact,  the  great  multitude  and  variety  of  facts 
somewhat  carefully  studied  in  all  the  earlier  grades 
furnishes  an  excellent  basis  of  comparisons  with 
most  of  the  topics  of  the  eighth  year.  For  example, 
later  modes  of  travel  by  steamboat,  railroad,  electric 
cars,  and  automobiles  may  be  compared  with  the 
slow  and  difficult  travel  of  colonial  times  on  horse- 
back over  bad  roads,  often  with  no  bridges  across  the 
streams.  In  the  great  period  of  steamboat  naviga- 
tion on  the  rivers  and  lakes,  it  is  profitable  to  com- 
pare such  journeys  with  the  early  canoe  voyages  of 
the  Indians  and  wood-rangers,  and  later  with  travels 

1  "  Method  of  Teaching  and  Studying  History"  (Hall),  pp.  150-151. 


190  SPECIAL   METHOD  IN   HISTORY 

by  rail.  The  emigration  of  different  nationalities 
from  Europe  to  this  country,  since  the  adoption  of 
the  Constitution,  may  be  compared  in  numbers  and 
quality  with  that  before  the  Revolution.  The  chief 
battles  of  the  Civil  War  may  be  compared  with  those 
of  the  Revolution,  and  of  the  war  with  Mexico.  In 
studying  the  paper  money  and  the  financial  situation 
during  the  Civil  War,  it  is  well  to  look  back  upon 
similar  facts  during  the  Revolution.  Great  inventions 
may  be  studied  and  compared  with  one  another  in 
their  effects  upon  the  country,  such  as  the  locomotive 
engine,  the  cotton  gin,  the  steamboat,  and  the  electric 
telegraph.  As  already  noted,  the  successive  acquisi- 
tions of  territory  may  be  compared  with  one  another. 
The  statesmen  of  later  periods  may  be  compared 
with  one  another  and  with  those  of  an  earlier  period. 
Such  comparisons  also  lead  to  comprehensive  views. 
By  comparison,  for  example,  we  shall  find  that 
Franklin,  John  Adams,  Hamilton,  Washington,  Web- 
ster, and  Lincoln  were  strong  and  positive  represen- 
tatives of  the  federal  idea  in  government,  that  is,  of  a 
strong,  central  power  which  is  able  to  control  and 
unify  the  states.  A  similar  series  of  comparisons 
will  bring  out  the  fact  that  Samuel  Adams,  Patrick 
Henry,  Jefferson,  Calhoun,  and  Jefferson  Davis  were 
distrustful  of  a  central  government  and  disposed  to 
emphasize  the  idea  of  state  sovereignty.  If  children 
gain  sufficient  knowledge  of  these  men  in  the  course 
of  history  instruction  to  draw  these  conclusions  as  the 


EIGHTH-GRADE  HISTORY  19 1 

natural  results  of  comparisons,  which  they  themselves 
make,  the  instruction  will  be  of  a  superior  quality 
We  are  disposed  to  think  that  the  difficulty  lies  not 
in  the  inability  of  children  to  draw  inferences,  but 
first  in  the  failure  to  get  at  the  significant  facts  in  the 
lives  of  these  men,  and  second  in  the  neglect  of  the 
method  of  comparison. 

There  is  scarcely  an  important  topic  of  nineteenth- 
century  history  which  does  not  admit  of  these  fruit- 
ful comparisons  with  our  earlier  history.  To  keep 
the  children  thoughtful  in  seeing  resemblances  and 
contrasts  between  the  earlier  and  later  events  is  the 
best  method  of  thoughtful  review.  It  leads  gradually 
to  the  classification  of  events  according  to  their  char- 
acter and  real  worth,  and  to  the  formation  of  great 
series  and  groups  of  related  topics.  The  most  valua- 
ble inferences  are  drawn  from  such  study. 

The  value  of  such  comparisons  has  been  affirmed 
in  the  most  convincing  way  by  some  of  the  best 
teachers  of  history.  W.  C.  Collar  says :  "  To  point 
out  relations,  to  contrast  and  compare  times,  institu- 
tions, events,  men,  is  one  of  the  most  delightful  and 
most  useful  parts  of  the  teacher's  work.  To  encour- 
age pupils  to  discover  likenesses  and  differences  is  to 
promote  thinking,  to  enlarge  the  mental  horizon,  to 
induce  a  habit  of  mind  of  inestimable  value.  Take, 
for  example,  the  fundamental  laws  of  the  Hebrews, 
the  Greeks,  and  the  Romans;  their  constitutions, 
which  embodied  and  expressed  their  most  striking 


IQ2  SPECIAL  METHOD  IN   HISTORY 

and  distinctive  national  characteristics.  It  would  be 
easy  to  show,  how  on  the  one  hand  the  Mosaic  con- 
stitution, the  Decalogue,  aimed  to  make  men  moral 
and  religious ;  while  on  the  other  the  Greek  and 
Roman  constitutions  sought  to  form  men  into  soldiers, 
and  to  make  them  into  members  of  a  body  politic. 
Hence  the  importance  of  private  conduct  under  the 
one  and  its  relative  unimportance  under  the  other, 
with  all  the  far-reaching  consequences  that  fol- 
lowed. In  the  study  of  Greek  history  a  compari- 
son of  the  two  rival  states,  Athens  and  Sparta,  in 
spirit  and  policy,  and  the  tracing  of  the  immediate 
and  remote  effects  on  themselves  and  all  Hellas,  will 
not  only  impart  increased  interest,  by  bringing  into 
clearer  relief  the  essential  characteristics,  the  heroism, 
the  selfishness,  the  hardihood,  the  cruelty,  the  narrow- 
ness of  the  one,  and  the  intelligence,  love  of  knowl- 
edge and  beauty,  but  also,  alas  !  the  sensuality,  levity, 
and  weakness  of  the  other ;  but  it  will  suggest  many 
an  important  lesson,  and  will  be  an  excellent  prepara- 
tion for  the  reading  of  modern  history  with  a  more 
intelligent  observation  and  reflection. 

"  If,  then,  comparison,  conscious  or  unconscious,  is  a 
necessary  condition  of  knowledge,  is  one  in  danger  of 
pressing  the  comparative  method  of  historical  study 
too  far?  Explicit  comparisons  at  every  step  are  not 
necessary,  and  the  strict  limitations  of  time  must  not 
be  forgotten.  I  have  never  failed  to  awaken  interest 
by  such  comparisons,  whether  in  the  study  of  ancient 


EIGHTH-GRADE  HISTORY  193 

or  modern  history,  even  when  the  basis  of  knowledge 
on  the  part  of  pupils  was  the  slenderest.  But  a  strik- 
ing parallelism  pointed  out  here  and  there  will  be 
enough  to  give  direction  to  the  thoughts  in  reading 
history,  to  lead  pupils,  as  has  already  been  observed, 
to  see  and  follow  out  analogies  themselves,  to  bring 
home  to  the  consciousness  what  is  far  away,  and  to 
recognize  in  what  appears  new  and  strange  what  is 
known  or  even  familiar.  Let  me  illustrate  :  — 

"Suppose  the  topic  for  a  lesson  has  been  the  Sicilian 
Expedition.  There  is  hardly  to  be  found  a  more  thrill- 
ing narrative  than  that  by  the  great  Greek  historian, 
and  the  reading  of  some  pages  from  Thucydides  may 
well  occupy  a  half-hour.  A  class  will  hardly  find  in 
their  course  in  ancient  history  so  conspicuous  an  ex- 
ample of  the  utter  disastrous  failure  of  an  important 
undertaking  through  the  irresolution  and  incapacity 
of  a  leader.  Let  the  teacher  now  tell  the  story  of  the 
Peninsular  Campaign  of  McClellan  in  our  late  Re- 
bellion, to  illustrate  how  history  is  repeated  in  events 
and  in  the  characters  of  men.  Nicias  was  a  man  of 
upright  character  and  respectable  talents,  but  as  a 
general  cautious  to  timidity,  and  in  a  pinch  incapable 
of  coming  to  a  decision.  He  was  one  of  those  men 
who  are  always  thought  to  be  sure  to  do  great  things 
without  its  being  possible  to  tell  what  inspires  such 
confidence.  He  had  the  resources  of  the  state  at  his 
back,  and  to  support  him  the  unflinching  determina- 
tion of  his  countrymen  to  win.  He  was  ably  seconded 


194  SPECIAL  METHOD  IN  HISTORY 

by  his  subordinates,  and  he  almost  achieved  a  great 
success.  But  at  the  last  moment  victory  slipped 
from  his  grasp,  and  the  hopeless  ruin  of  all  his  plans 
quickly  followed.  Such,  at  least  in  the  opinion  of 
many,  was  McClellan,  and  so  ended  disastrously  his 
strategy  of  the  spade.  As  the  elder  Nicias  barely 
missed  capturing  Syracuse,  so  did  the  modern  Nicias 
all  but  take  Richmond."  l 

Herbert  B.  Adams  says :  "  It  would  be  a  fine  thing 
for  American  students,  if,  in  studying  special  topics 
in  the  history  of  their  own  country,  they  would  occa- 
sionally compare  the  phases  of  historic  truth  here 
discovered  with  similar  phases  of  discovery  else- 
where; if,  for  example,  the  colonial  beginnings  of 
North  America  should  be  compared  with  Aryan  mi- 
grations westward  into  Greece  and  Italy,  or  again 
with  the  colonial  systems  of  Greece  and  of  the  Roman 
Empire,  or  of  the  English  Empire  to-day,  which  is 
continuing  in  South  Africa  and  Australia  and  in 
Manitoba  the  same  old  spirit  of  enterprise  which 
colonized  the  Atlantic  seaboard  of  North  America. 
It  would  interest  young  minds  to  have  parallels  drawn 
between  English  colonies,  Grecian  commonwealths, 
Roman  provinces,  the  United  Cantons  of  Switzerland, 
and  the  United  States  of  Holland.  To  be  sure,  these 
various  topics  would  require  considerable  study  on 
the  part  of  the  teacher  and  pupil,  but  the  fathers  of 
the  American  Constitution,  Madison,  Hamilton,  and 

1 "  Method  of  Teaching  and  Studying  History  "  (Hall),  pp.  84-87. 


EIGHTH-GRADE  HISTORY  195 

others,  went  over  such  ground  in  preparing  the  plat- 
form of  our  present  federal  government. 

"  But  my  special  plea  is  for  the  application  of  the 
comparative  method  to  the  use  of  historical  literature. 
Students  should  learn  to  view  history  in  different 
lights  and  from  various  standpoints.  Instead  of  rely- 
ing passively  upon  the  ipse  dixit  of  the  schoolmaster, 
or  of  the  schoolbook,  or  of  some  one  historian,  pupils 
should  learn  to  judge  for  themselves  by  comparing 
evidence.  Of  course  some  discretion  should  be  exer- 
cised by  the  teacher  in  the  case  of  young  pupils ; 
but  even  children  are  attracted  by  different  versions 
of  the  same  tale  or  legend,  and  catch  at  new  points 
of  interest  with  all  the  eagerness  of  original  investi- 
gators. The  scattered  elements  of  fact  or  tradition 
should  be  brought  together  as  children  piece  together 
the  scattered  blocks  of  a  map.  The  criterion  of  all 
truth,  as  well  as  of  all  art,  is  fitness.  Comparison  of 
different  accounts  of  the  same  historic  event  would 
no  more  injure  boys  and  girls  than  would  a  compara- 
tive study  of  the  four  Gospels.  On  the  contrary,  such 
comparisons  strengthen  the  judgment,  and  give  it 
greater  independence  and  stability.  In  teaching  his- 
tory, altogether  too  much  stress  has  been  laid,  in 
many  of  our  schools,  upon  mere  form  of  verbal  ex- 
pression in  the  text-book,  as  though  historic  truth 
consisted  in  the  repetition  of  what  some  author  had 
said.  It  would  be  far  better  for  the  student  to  read 
the  same  story  in  several  different  forms,  and  then  to 


IQ0  SPECIAL  METHOD   IN   HISTORY 

give  his  own  version.  The  latter  process  would  be 
an  independent  historical  view  based  upon  a  variety 
of  evidence.  The  memorizing  of  '  words,  words,' 
prevents  the  assimilation  of  facts,  and  clogs  the 
mental  processes  of  reflection  and  private  judg- 
ment." s 

In  discussing  the  teaching  of  history  stories  in  the 
fourth  and  fifth  grades  we  illustrated,  in  various  ways, 
the  advantage  of  solving  historical  problems  which 
arose  in  the  stories.  The  opportunity  for  problem- 
solving  is  given  on  a  much  larger  scale  in  the  later 
history.  When  Hamilton,  for  example,  took  charge 
of  the  Treasury  Department  at  the  beginning  of  the 
first  administration  of  Washington,  he  had  before 
him  the  problem  of  restoring  the  credit  and  of  es- 
tablishing a  sound  financial  system  for  the  new  gov- 
ernment just  starting  out  on  its  great  career.  The 
debts  accumulated  by  the  colonies  during  the  Revolu- 
tion were  to  be  provided  for,  a  revenue  secured  to 
the  new  government  by  a  system  of  duties  and  taxes, 
and  a  banking  system  brought  into  existence  which 
could  satisfy  the  needs  of  the  government  and  of  the 
people.  It  seems  possible  for  children  to  understand 
the  main  difficulties  which  confronted  Hamilton  and 
the  measures  which  he  took  to  meet  them.  Another 
great  problem  was  that  which  met  Lincoln  as  he 
assumed  the  office  of  President  in  1861.  It  is  advis- 
able to  take  a  survey  of  the  difficulties  and  perplexities 

1  "  Method  of  Teaching  and  Studying  History  "  (Hall),  pp.  137-138. 


EIGHTH-GRADE   HISTORY  197 

which  presented  themselves  to  him,  and  then  to  get 
a  clear  grasp  of  the  one  simple  idea  as  the  goal  toward 
which  all  his  efforts  were  exerted,  —  the  maintenance 
of  the  union  between  the  states.  Every  difficulty 
which  he  overcame  was  a  step  toward  the  preserva- 
tion of  the  union.  From  this  point  of  view  it  is 
interesting  to  see  how  he  worked  out  his  problem. 
In  a  somewhat  similar  way  Grant,  in  his  military 
career,  worked  a  series  of  war  problems.  Some  of 
these  can  be  understood.  The  story  of  his  invest- 
ment and  capture  of  Vicksburg  was  a  problem  which 
he  worked  out  with  dogged  determination.  The 
Missouri  Compromise  and  the  Kansas-Nebraska  Bill 
were  attempts  at  the  solution  of  a  great  problem ;  but 
Lincoln,  in  his  debates  with  Douglas  in  1858,  grap- 
pled with  the  fundamental  conditions  of  this  problem 
in  such  a  way  as  to  lead  to  the  most  overwhelming 
results. 

Of  course  historical  problems  become  more  com- 
plex as  we  come  near  to  the  present,  and  some  of 
them  are  too  difficult  for  children  to  comprehend  ex- 
cept in  their  simple  and  more  obvious  phases.  Such, 
for  example,  is  our  tariff  controversy,  our  system  of 
revenue,  the  gold  standard,  and  the  changes  in  the 
platforms  of  political  parties.  But  in  the  solution  of 
problems  such  as  children  can  understand,  there  is 
opportunity  for  a  very  useful  sort  of  mental  disci- 
pline, namely,  the  cultivation  of  a  well-balanced,  fair- 
minded  judgment  in  estimating  historical  questions 


198  SPECIAL  METHOD   IN   HISTORY 

In  historical  problems  we  may  compare  the  pros  and 
cons,  the  arguments  on  both  sides  of  the  question. 
In  discussing  the  Civil  War,  for  example,  children 
should  be  taught  to  think  the  situation  fairly  and 
completely  on  both  sides,  the  reasons  which  were 
convincing  to  the  South  that  they  were  in  the  right, 
and  likewise  those  of  the  North.  It  is  only  in  this 
way  that  the  irrepressible  nature  of  the  conflict  can 
be  understood. 

In  the  eighth  grade  it  is  expected  that  children's 
ideas  on  civics  and  civil  government  will  be  cleared 
up  so  that  they  may  get  correct  notions  of  our  gov- 
ernmental machinery.  In  the  seventh-grade  work 
we  suggested  that  this  could  best  be  accomplished 
in  connection  with  the  history  of  the  framing  of  the 
Constitution.  Since  the  beginning  of  Washington's 
administration,  in  1789,  all  of  our  political  history 
may  be  regarded  as  a  commentary  on  the  Constitu- 
tion. At  that  time  the  whole  machinery  of  the  gov- 
ernment was  put  into  operation,  and  since  then  we 
have  been  testing  its  practical  working  powers.  Up 
to  1789  our  history  gave  us  a  great  series  of  acts  of 
constructive  statesmanship,  culminating  in  the  Con- 
stitution. We  noted  in  seventh  grade  that  nearly 
the  whole  of  early  American  history  is  focussed  in 
the  Constitution. 

The  last  hundred  years  and  more  since  the  adop- 
tion of  the  Constitution  has  furnished  a  series  of 
great  practical  tests  of  the  strength  and  flexibility  of 


EIGHTH-GRADE  HISTORY  199 

the  Constitution  to  meet  and  satisfy  the  demands  of 
such  a  growing  country  as  ours.  It  may  be  said  that 
nearly  every  important  controversy  in  our  history 
since  1789  is  a  question  in  regard  to  the  meaning  of 
the  Constitution,  what  the  Constitution  allows  or  pro- 
hibits. The  Emancipation  Proclamation  of  Lincoln 
was  declared  by  his  opponents  to  be  unconstitutional. 
Long  before  the  war  one  party  claimed  that  a  state 
had  the  right  under  the  Constitution  to  secede ;  this 
the  other  party  denied.  The  question  of  internal 
improvements  was  a  question  as  to  the  power  of 
Congress  under  the  Constitution.  At  the  present 
time  the  power  of  Congress  to  regulate  the  trusts  is 
disputed  in  the  same  way.  The  history,  therefore, 
of  the  United  States  consists  of  a  series  of  illustra- 
tions of  the  meaning  and  intent  of  the  Constitution, 
as  determined  by  the  greatest  events  in  our  history. 
If  children  are  to  be  taught  by  concrete  examples, 
the  study  of  our  history  is  by  all  odds  the  best  means 
of  understanding  civics.  The  Committee  of  Seven 
says  : l  "  We  do  not  think  that  this  preparation  is  sat- 
isfactorily acquired  merely  through  the  study  of  civil 
government,  which,  strictly  construed,  has  to  do  only 
with  existing  institutions.  The  pupil  should  see  the 
growth  of  the  institutions  which  surround  him;  he 
should  see  the  work  of  men;  he  should  study  the 
living,  concrete  facts  of  the  past ;  he  should  know  of 

1  Report  of  the  Committee  of  Seven.    "The  Study  of  History  in 
Schools,"  pp.  18,  19. 


200  SPECIAL  METHOD   IN   HISTORY 


the  nations  that  have  risen  and  fallen ;  he  should 
see  tyranny,  vulgarity,  greed,  benevolence,  patriotism, 
self-sacrifice,  brought  out  in  the  lives  and  works  of 
men.  So  strongly  has  this  very  thought  taken  hold 
of  writers  of  civil  government,  that  they  no  longer 
content  themselves  with  a  description  of  the  govern- 
ment as  it  is,  but  describe  at  considerable  length  the 
origin  and  development  of  the  institutions  of  which 
they  speak." 

There  seems  to  be  no  means  of  rendering  historical 
ideas  so  potent,  so  effective  and  contagious  in  their 
influence  upon  young  people  as  biography.  We  are 
all  hero-worshippers,  and  children  more  than  adults. 
In  eighth  grade  also  it  will  reward  us  to  select  three 
of  the  best  typical  biographies  and  base  a  large  share 
of  the  year's  work  upon  their  study.  We  suggest 
the  three  following  biographies: — 

John  Quincy  Adams. 

Daniel  Webster. 

Abraham  Lincoln. 

The  public  life  of  John  Quincy  Adams  almost 
covers  the  first  fifty  years  of  the  constitutional 
period,  and,  while  he  is  identified  with  all  the  impor- 
tant problems  of  those  times,  his  leadership  of  the 
antislavery  forces  during  the  last  seventeen  years 
in  Congress  brings  him  close  to  the  great  struggle 
which  culminated  in  1861.  Daniel  Webster  stands 
out  as  the  chief  defender  of  the  Constitution  and 
expounder  of  our  form  of  government.  His  early 


EIGHTH-GRADE  HISTORY  2OI 

life  is  of  much  interest,  and  his  speeches  may  be 
much  read  in  seventh  and  eighth  grades,  and  in  the 
high  school.  Lincoln  was  the  untried  citizen,  who, 
being  placed  at  the  head  of  national  interests  at  the 
moment  of  supreme  weakness  and  danger,  calmly 
and  patiently  met  the  situation  in  the  spirit  of 
wisdom  and  patriotism,  and  the  country  was  saved. 
These  men  will  be  closely  studied  and  their  positions 
on  public  questions  compared  with  those  of  other 
leaders.  There  are  also  several  other  biographies 
which  should  be  looked  into  as  far  as  time  will 
permit.  Hamilton,  Jefferson,  Calhoun,  Clay,  Fulton, 
Field,  Morse,  Garrison,  Stephens,  and  Sumner. 
American  history  is  surely  not  lacking  in  culture 
materials  if  we  will  only  select  the  best  and  use  it 
well. 

In  view  of  the  remarkable  inventions  and  applica- 
tions of  modern  science  in  the  last  hundred  years,  it 
is  appropriate  that  the  biographies  of  some  of  the 
inventors  should  be  studied  and  the  practical  effect 
of  these  inventions  upon  commerce,  industry,  and 
the  comforts  of  life  explained.  In  a  new  and  rapidly 
developing  country  such  as  ours  the  effects  of  scien- 
tific invention  have  been  more  quickly  and  power- 
fully felt  than  in  other  slower-moving  countries.  So 
great  have  been  the  changes  wrought  by  the  applica- 
tion of  science  to  life  that  the  achievements  of  our 
country  in  this  direction  have  largely  monopolized 
the  energies  of  our  people,  so  that  political  and  gov- 


2O2  SPECIAL  METHOD   IN    HISTORY 

ernmental  affairs  have  almost  taken  a  second  place. 
Certain  it  is  that  to  understand  our  present  society 
in  even  a  few  of  its  leading  aspects  we  must  gain 
insight  into  the  historical  forces  which  have  come 
down  to  us  out  of  the  past,  and  into  those  applica- 
tions of  natural  science  which  have  worked  their  way 
into  every  corner  and  crevice  of  our  lives. 

A  thoughtful  teacher  in  eighth-grade  history  will 
make  frequent  use  of  local  politics  and  familiar 
neighborhood  experiences  in  illustrating  difficult 
topics.  In  connection  with  banking  a  careful  study 
of  a  local  national  bank,  number  of  directors,  capital 
required,  the  national  banking  act  under  which  it 
operates,  and  its  service  to  the  community,  as  well  as 
profit  to  the  stockholders,  will  throw  new  light  upon 
some  very  difficult  questions  in  history.  In  this  case 
the  teacher  needs  to  make  a  practical  study  of  the 
subject,  talk  with  the  bank  officers,  read  the  banking 
act,  and  become  acquainted  with  the  actual  sources 
of  profit  in  the  banking  business.  Herbert  B.  Adams 
says :  "  From  a  variety  of  considerations,  the  writer 
is  persuaded  that  one  of  the  best  introductions  to 
history  that  can  be  given  in  American  high  schools, 
and  even  in  those  of  lower  grade,  is  through  a  study 
of  the  community  in  which  the  school  is  placed. 
History,  like  charity,  begins  at  home.  The  best 
American  citizens  are  those  who  mind  home  affairs 
and  local  interests.  '  That  man's  the  best  cosmopo- 
lite who  loves  his  native  country  best.'  The  best 


EIGHTH-GRADE   HISTORY  203 

students  of  universal  history  are  those  who  know 
some  one  country  or  some  one  subject  well.  The 
family,  the  hamlet,  the  neighborhood,  the  community, 
the  parish,  the  village,  town,  city,  county,  and  state 
are  historically  the  ways  by  which  men  have 
approached  national  and  international  life.  It  is  a 
preliminary  study  of  the  geography  of  Frankfort-on- 
the-Main  that  led  Carl  Ritter  to  study  the  physical 
structure  of  Europe  and  Asia,  and  thus  to  establish 
the  new  science  of  comparative  geography.  He 
says,  'Whoever  has  wandered  through  the  valleys 
and  woods,  and  over  the  hills  and  mountains  of  his 
own  state,  will  be  the  one  capable  of  following  a 
Herodotus  in  his  wanderings  over  the  globe.' 

"  If  young  Americans  are  to  appreciate  their  reli- 
gious and  political  inheritance,  they  must  learn  its 
intrinsic  worth.  They  must  be  taught  to  appreciate 
the  common  and  lowly  things  around  them.  They 
should  grow  up  with  as  profound  respect  for  town 
and  parish  meetings  as  for  the  state  legislature,  not 
to  speak  of  the  Houses  of  Congress.  They  should 
recognize  the  majesty  of  the  law  even  in  the  parish 
constable  as  well  as  in  the  high  sheriff  of  the  county. 
They  should  look  on  selectmen  as  the  head  men  of 
the  town,  the  survival  of  the  old  English  reeve  and 
four  best  men  of  the  parish.  They  should  be  taught 
to  see  in  the  town  common  or  village  green  a  sur- 
vival of  that  primitive  institution  of  land-community 
upon  which  town  and  state  are  based.  They  should 


204  SPECIAL  METHOD  IN  HISTORY 

be  taught  the  meaning  of  town  and  family  names; 
how  the  word  '  town '  means,  primarily,  a  place 
hedged  in  for  purposes  of  defence ;  how  the  picket- 
fences  around  home  and  house-lot  are  but  a  survival 
of  the  primitive  town  idea;  how  home,  hamlet,  and 
town  live  on  together  in  a  name  like  Hampton,  or 
Home-town.  They  should  investigate  the  most  ordi- 
nary things,  for  these  are  often  the  most  archaic. 
For  example,  there  is  the  village  pound,  which  Sir 
Henry  Maine  says  is  one  of  the  most  ancient  institu- 
tions, 'older  than  the  king's  bench,  and  probably 
older  than  the  kingdom.'  There,  too,  are  the  field- 
drivers  (still  known  in  New  England),  the  ancient 
town  herdsmen,  village  shepherds,  and  village  swine- 
herds (once  common  in  this  country),  who  serve  to 
connect  our  historic  life  with  the  earliest  pastoral 
beginnings  of  mankind." 1 

Richard  T.  Ely  says :  "  The  writer  has  indeed 
found  it  possible  to  entertain  a  schoolroom  full  of 
boys,  varying  in  age  from  five  to  sixteen,  with  a  dis- 
course on  two  definitions  of  capital,  —  one  taken 
from  a  celebrated  writer,  and  the  other  from  an 
obscure  pamphlet  on  socialism  by  a  radical  reformer. 
As  the  school  was  in  the  country,  illustrations  were 
taken  from  farm  life,  such  as  corn-planting  and 
harvesting,  and  from  the  outdoor  sports  of  the  boys, 
such  as  trapping  for  rabbits.  Some  common,  familiar 

1  Pedagogical  Library,  Ed.  by  G.  Stanley  Hall.  Vol.  I, "  Methods  of 
Teaching  History,"  pp.  125,  128,  and  129. 


EIGHTH-GRADE  HISTORY  205 

fact  was  kept  constantly  in  the  foreground,  and  thus 
the  attention  of  the  youngest  lad  was  held. 

"  Perhaps  money  is  as  good  a  subject  as  any  for 
an  opening  lecture  to  bright  boys  and  girls,  and  the 
writer  would  recommend  a  course  of  procedure  some- 
what like  this :  Take  into  the  classroom  the  different 
kinds  of  money  in  use  in  the  United  States,  both 
paper  and  coin,  and  ask  questions  about  them,  and 
talk  about  them.  Show  the  class  a  greenback  and 
a  national  bank-note,  and  ask  them  to  tell  you  the 
difference.  After  they  have  all  failed,  as  they  prob- 
ably will,  ask  some  one  to  read  what  is  engraved  on 
the  notes,  after  which  the  difference  may  be  further 
elucidated.  Silver  and  gold  certificates  may  be  dis- 
cussed, and  the  distinction  made  clear  between  the  bul- 
lion and  face  value  of  the  five-cent  piece,  etc.  Other 
talks,  interesting  and  familiar,  about  alloys,  the  ex- 
tent to  which  pennies  and  small  coins  are  legal 
tender,  the  character  of  the  trade-dollar,  etc.,  will 
occupy  several  hours,  and  delight  the  class.  The 
origin  of  money  is  a  topic  which  will  instruct  and 
entertain  the  scholars  for  an  •  hour.  Various  kinds 
of  money  should  be  mentioned ;  and  it  is  possible 
you  may  find  examples  of  curious  kinds  of  money  in 
some  hill  town  not  very  remote,  e.g.,  eggs,  and  you 
are  very  likely  to  find  several  kinds  of  money  in  use 
among  the  boys  and  girls,  e.g.,  pins.  In  one  board- 
ing-school, near  Baltimore,  bits  of  butter,  served  the 
boys  at  meals  in  quantities  less  than  they  desired, 


206  SPECIAL  METHOD   IN   HISTORY 

passed  as  money,  and  quite  an  extensive  use  of  bills 
and  orders,  '  negotiable  instruments,'  was  established. 

"  Taxes  can  be  studied  in  the  town  or  village.  The 
pupils  can  learn  from  their  fathers  what  the  taxes 
are,  how  they  are  assessed  and  collected,  and  what 
part  of  the  revenues  is  used  for  village  purposes, 
what  part  for  schools,  what  part  for  the  county,  and 
what  part  for  the  state.  In  any  village  it  cannot 
be  difficult  to  induce  one  of  the  assessors  to  explain 
before  the  class  in  political  economy  the  principles 
upon  which  he  does  his  work.  All  the  pupils  can 
then  write  essays  about  taxation  in  the  said  place, 
and  perhaps  one  of  them  will  be  able  to  write  a 
financial  history  of  the  town."  1 

One  of  the  questions  which  is  sure  to  command 
the  thoughtful  attention  of  the  teachers  in  eighth- 
grade  history,  is,  what  use  to  make  of  books.  We 
may  sum  it  up  briefly  as  follows :  A  good  text-book 
containing  an  outline  of  the  chief  facts  should  furnish 
the  general  framework  for  the  reception  of  fuller 
materials  from  other  sources.  A  good  text-book  is 
invaluable  as  a  guide  through  the  labyrinth  of  his- 
torical wanderings,  but  teachers  must  be  on  guard 
not  to  be  enslaved  to  the  narrow  limits  of  thought  in 
even  the  best  text-book.  In  speaking  of  history 
instruction  in  the  German  Gymnasium  with  boys 
about  twelve  years  of  age,  C.  K.  Adams  says :  "  The 

1  Pedagogical  Library,  Ed.  by  G.  Stanley  Hall.  VoL  I, "  Methodi  ol 
Teaching  History,"  pp.  63,  64,  and  66. 


EIGHTH-GRADE  HISTORY  207 

system  keeps  clearly  in  view  the  fact  that  the  pupil 
is  not  yet  ready  for  that  development  which  results 
from  hard  study.  It  never  ceases  to  remember  that 
at  least  three-fourths  of  all  the  time  spent  by  a  boy 
of  twelve  in  trying  to  learn  a  hard  lesson  out  of  a 
book  is  time  thrown  away.  Perhaps  one-fourth  of  the 
time  is  devoted  to  more  or  less  desperate  and  con- 
scientious effort ;  but  the  large  remaining  portion 
is  dawdled  away  in  thinking  of  the  last  game  of  ball 
and  longing  for  the  next  game  of  tag." 

In  the  assignment  of  the  lesson  the  teacher  should 
pave  the  way  for  a  more  intelligent  and  interesting 
study  of  the  book.  W.  C.  Collar  says :  "  First  read 
over  the  lesson  assigned  for  the  next  day,  or  portions 
of  it,  with  the  class;  indicate  briefly  what  is  of 
greater  and  what  of  less  importance ;  make  such  ex- 
planations as  are  needful  for  an  intelligent  compre- 
hension of  the  text,  and  indicate  what  dates  should 
be  committed  to  memory." 

There  is  also  need  of  a  few  books  which  give  a 
complete  discussion  to  important  topics.  A  small 
number  of  select  biographies  belongs  also  to  this 
group.  For  reference  books  the  source  materials, 
such  as  those  furnished  in  Hart's  "American  His- 
tory told  by  Contemporaries,"  and  a  few  of  the  histori- 
cal readers,  can  be  used.  The  larger  histories  can  be 
consulted  upon  special  topics  in  the  libraries.  The 
great  forensic  orations  of  Clay,  Webster,  Sumner, 
and  Benton  may  serve  as  excellent  reading  matter 


208  SPECIAL  METHOD  IN   HISTORY 

for  some  children  in  each  class.  In  the  assignment 
of  reference  readings,  however,  a  small  amount  of 
definite  reading,  carefully  chosen,  should  be  assigned 
as  a  part  of  the  required  work,  while  the  range  of 
optional  readings  for  those  who  have  time  and  abil- 
ity should  be  quite  extensive. 

Every  teacher  must  settle  the  question  how  many 
dates  to  require  of  the  children.  It  is  admitted  that 
chronology  offers  a  necessary  framework  within 
which  to  arrange  the  materials  of  history.  The  im- 
portant question  is,  To  what  extent  does  the  mem- 
orizing of  dates  serve  to  give  a  firmer  grasp  and  a 
clearer  understanding  of  essential  ideas  in  history  ? 
It  seems  to  me  that  a  very  small  number  of  dates 
will  answer  every  purpose.  The  schoolmaster  and 
the  programme-maker  are  generally  disposed  to  multi- 
ply chronological  tables.  The  following  statement  by 
J.  E.  Lloyd,  of  Wales,  seems  to  strike  the  golden 
mean.  "  I  cannot  say  that  I  attach  much  importance 
myself  to  the  storing  of  the  memory  even  with  dates 
and  genealogical  tables.  No  doubt  it  is  convenient 
to  the  historian  to  have  such  matters  at  his  fingers' 
ends,  but  the  power  of  getting  them  up  by  heart  is 
something  very  different  from  the  aptitude  for  his- 
tory, and  the  energies  devoted  to  the  task  might  in 
most  cases,  I  think,  be  more  profitably  employed  in 
other  directions.  A  few  leading  dates,  which  serve 
to  articulate  the  field  of  study,  may  be  learnt  with 
advantage,  but  even  here  I  am  inclined  to  believe 


EIGHTH-GRADE  HISTORY  2OQ 

that  more  may  be  done  by  means  of  chronological 
charts,  in  which  each  century  occupies  an  equal 
space,  than  by  simple  tables  of  dates."1 

W.  C.  Collar  says :  "  A  word  may  be  here  most 
conveniently  said  on  the  subject  of  chronology.  A 
few  dates  should  be  well  fixed  in  the  memory ;  they 
should  be  carefully  selected  by  the  teacher,  and 
some  explanation  given  of  their  significance.  But  '  a 
few,'  you  will  say,  is  a  little  indefinite.  Of  course, 
opinions  will  differ  as  to  the  number  of  indispen- 
sable dates  in  any  history,  though  there  might  be  a 
general  assent  to  the  principle  of  requiring  the  pupil 
to  commit  as  few  as  possible.  Of  the  250  dates 
given  in  Smith's  '  Smaller  History  of  Greece,'  I  in- 
sist on  fifteen,  and  I  think  the  number  might  be  re- 
duced to  ten.  But  if  learners  are  properly  taught, 
they  will,  of  course,  be  able  to  determine  a  great  many 
dates  approximately.  For  example,  a  boy  who  has 
clearly  understood  the  cause,  purpose,  and  results  of 
the  Confederacy  of  Delos  could  not  possibly  place  it 
in  a  time  far  wrong,  with  reference  to  great  events 
before  and  after  it ;  and  a  single  important  date  in 
the  century  well  remembered  would  enable  him  to 
fix  very  nearly  its  absolute  time."  2 

In  discussing  the  work  of  previous  grades  we  have 

1  Frederick  Spencer,  Ed.      "  Chapters  on  the  Aims  and  Practice  of 
Teaching,"   p.  150. 

2  Pedagogical  Library,  Ed.  by  G.  Stanley  Hall.    VoL  I,  «  Methods 
of  Teaching  History,"  pp.  8l,  82. 

P 


210  SPECIAL  METHOD  IN   HISTORY 

dealt  at  length  with  the  qualifications  of  teachers. 
In  the  eighth  grade  the  history  teacher  should  be- 
come, as  far  as  circumstances  permit,  an  expert  in 
historical  knowledge,  well  acquainted  with  the  most 
helpful  and  stimulating  books  and  versatile  in  method. 
This  matter  is  well  summed  up  in  the  Report  of  the 
Committee  of  Seven,  as  follows :  "  The  first  requisite 
for  good  teaching  is  knowledge.  The  teacher's  duty 
is  not  simply  to  see  that  the  pupils  have  learned  a 
given  amount,  or  that  they  understand  the  lesson,  as 
one  uses  the  word  '  understand '  when  speaking  of  a 
demonstration  in  geometry  or  an  experiment  in 
physics.  His  task  is  to  bring  out  the  real  meaning 
and  import  of  what  is  learned  by  adding  illustrations, 
showing  causes,  and  suggesting  results,  to  select  the 
important  and  to  pass  over  the  unimportant,  to  em- 
phasize essentials,  and  to  enlarge  upon  significant 
facts  and  ideas.  A  person  with  a  meagre  informa- 
tion cannot  have  a  wide  outlook ;  he  cannot  see  the 
relative  importance  of  things  unless  he  actually 
knows  them  in  their  relations. 

"  But  knowledge  of  facts  alone  is  not  enough.  In 
historical  work  pupils  and  teacher  are  constantly 
engaged  in  using  books.  These  books  the  teacher 
must  know ;  he  must  know  the  periods  which  they 
cover,  their  methods  of  treatment,  their  trustworthi- 
ness, their  attractiveness,  their  general  utility  for  the 
purposes  of  young  students.  He  must  have  skill  in 
handling  books  and  in  gleaning  from  them  the  infor- 


EIGHTH-GRADE   HISTORY  211 

mation  which  he  is  seeking,  because  it  is  just  this 
skill  which  he  is  trying  to  give  to  his  pupils.  No  one 
would  seriously  think  of  putting  in  charge  of  a  class 
in  manual  training  a  person  who  had  himself  never 
shoved  a  plane  or  measured  a  board.  To  turn  over  a 
class  in  history  to  be  instructed  by  a  person  who  is  not 
acquainted  with  the  tools  of  the  trade  and  has  had  no 
practice  in  manipulating  them,  is  an  equal  absurdity. 
"  A  successful  teacher  must  have  more  than  mere 
accurate  information  and  professional  knowledge. 
He  needs  to  have  a  living  sympathy  with  the  tale 
which  he  tells.  He  must  know  how  to  bring  out  the 
dramatic  aspects  of  his  story.  He  must  know  how 
to  awaken  the  interest  and  attention  of  his  pupils, 
who  will  always  be  alert  and  eager  if  they  feel  that 
they  are  learning  of  the  actual  struggles  and  con- 
flicts of  men  who  had  like  passions  with  ourselves. 
Though  stores  of  dates  and  names  must  be  at  the 
teacher's  command,  these  are  not  enough.  He  must 
have  had  his  own  imagination  fired  and  his  enthusiasm 
kindled;  he  must  know  the  sources  of  historical 
knowledge  and  the  springs  of  historical  inspiration ; 
he  must  know  the  literature  of  history  and  be  able  to 
direct  his  pupils  to  stirring  passages  in  the  great  his- 
torical masters ;  he  must  know  how  to  illumine  and 
brighten  the  page  by  readings  from  literature  and 
by  illustrations  from  art." * 

1  Report  of  the  Committee  of  Seven,  "  The  Study  of  History  in 
Schools,"  pp.  115,  116. 


212  SPECIAL  METHOD  IN  HISTORY 

The  eighth-grade  teacher  has  occasion  frequently 
to  use  historical  maps.  The  westward  movement  of 
the  frontier;  the  admission  of  new  states  into  the 
Union,  especially  in  connection  with  the  extension  of 
slavery  ;  the  great  overland  routes  across  the  conti- 
nent, both  before  and  since  the  railroads ;  the  distri- 
bution of  races  in  North  America ;  the  gradual 
extinction  of  the  Indian  title ;  the  geographical 
aspect  of  political  parties ;  the  location  of  large  trade 
routes  and  commercial  centres ;  the  outlining  of  mili- 
tary campaigns ;  the  successive  additions  of  terri- 
tory; and  many  other  topics  in  eighth  grade  can 
be  clearly  grasped  only  by  a  varied  and  liberal  use  of 
maps. 

In  many  cases  blackboard  sketches  and  diagrams 
made  by  both  teacher  and  pupils  are  needed.  In 
the  plans  of  battles  and  campaigns  and  in  blocking 
out  statistical  comparisons,  the  use  of  the  blackboard 
is  most  helpful.  Outline  maps  such  as  those  pub- 
lished by  D.  C.  Heath  &  Co.,  Rand,  McNally  &  Co., 
and  those  of  the  United  States  Geological  Survey 
can  be  used  by  the  pupils  in  working  out  boundaries 
of  new  territories,  populations,  physiographic  regions, 
trade  routes,  the  sectional  character  of  elections, 
political  parties,  etc. 

Well-selected  and  appropriate  pictures  are  also  of 
great  value  in  giving  definiteness  and  vividness  to 
historical  ideas.  Illustrations,  pictures,  and  maps 
are  always  useful,  even  to  mature  students,  in  giving 


EIGHTH-GRADE  HISTORY  213 

reality  and  clearness  to  historical  life.  The  Commit- 
tee of  Seven  enforces  this  point  as  follows :  "  Besides 
the  sources  which  have  come  down  to  us  in  written 
form  and  are  reproduced  upon  the  printed  page, 
there  is  another  important  class  of  historical  materi- 
als which  is  of  great  assistance  in  giving  reality  to 
the  past,  —  namely,  actual,  concrete  remains,  such  as 
exist  in  the  form  of  old  buildings,  monuments,  and 
the  contents  of  museums.  Many  schools  have  direct 
access  to  interesting  survivals  of  this  sort,  while  the 
various  processes  of  pictorial  reproduction  have 
placed  abundant  stores  of  such  material  within  reach 
of  every  teacher.  The  excellent  illustrations  of 
many  recent  text-books  may  be  supplemented  by 
special  albums,  such  as  are  used  in  French  and  Ger- 
man schools,  and  by  the  school's  own  collection  of 
engravings  and  photographs  cut  from  magazines  or 
procured  from  dealers.  Some  schools  have  also  pro- 
vided sets  of  lantern  slides.  Of  course  in  order  to 
entitle  such  illustrations  to  serious  use  and  to  the 
rank  of  historical  sources  they  must  be  real  pic- 
tures,—  actual  reproductions  of  buildings,  statues, 
contemporary  portraits,  views  of  places,  etc.,  —  and 
not  inventions  of  modern  artists.  It  is  easy  to  make 
too  much  of  illustrations,  and  thus  reduce  history 
to  a  series  of  dissolving  views ;  but  many  excellent 
teachers  have  found  the  judicious  use  of  pictures 
helpful  in  the  extreme,  not  merely  in  arousing  inter- 
est in  the  picturesque  aspects  of  the  subject,  but  in 


214  SPECIAL  METHOD   IN  HISTORY 

cultivating  the  historical  imagination  and  in  giving 
definiteness  and  vividness  to  the  pupil's  general 
ideas  of  the  past.  An  appeal  to  the  eye  is  of  great 
assistance  in  bringing  out  the  characteristic  differ- 
ences between  past  and  present,  and  thus  in  check- 
ing that  tendency  to  project  the  present  into  the  past 
which  is  one  of  the  most  serious  obstacles  to  sound 
views  of  history.  The  chief  danger  in  the  use  of 
pictorial  material  lies  in  giving  too  much  of  it  instead 
of  dwelling  at  length  on  a  few  carefully  chosen 
examples."1 

Having  outlined  the  course  of  study  in  the  com- 
mon school  through  the  eighth  grade,  we  may  con- 
clude the  discussion  by  surveying  again  the  general 
question  of  selecting  the  topics  and  laying  out  the 
history  course  on  the  basis  of  concentric  circles. 
This  plan  purposes  to  run  over  the  general  course 
of  our  history  about  three  times  in  the  grades  below 
the  high  school,  each  succeeding  review  purport- 
ing to  give  a  broader  and  deeper  knowledge  of  the 
chief  events  and  ideas. 

In  its  favor  it  has  the  well-established  practice 
of  some  of  the  best  schools  in  this  country  and  in 
Europe.  Indeed,  it  is  claimed  that  in  Germany  this 
plan  has  been  followed  with  such  entire  success  in 
the  best  schools  of  the  world  that  it  is  the  only  one 
worth  serious  consideration.  Psychology  and  child- 

1  Report  of  the  Committee  of  Seven,  "  The  Study  of  History  in 
Schools,"  pp.  108,  109. 


EIGHTH-GRADE   HISTORY  215 

nature  have  also  been  identified  with  this  scheme  as 
if  they  had  been  born  and  bred  together.  But  we 
should  not  be  surprised  by  this  coincidence,  for  any 
one  who  has  a  scheme  can  generally  find  in  psychol- 
ogy friendly  shelter  and  protection.  In  fact,  we 
shall  be  found  later  defending  our  own  scheme  on 
psychological  grounds. 

The  opportunity  for  frequent  review  of  important 
topics  and  for  that  thoroughness  to  which  the  school- 
master is  at  least  theoretically  espoused,  gives  this 
theory  a  very  strong  practical  hold.  The  drill- 
master  has  a  special  fondness  for  this  kind  of  a 
scheme,  and  we  confess  to  a  strong  leaning  toward 
this  weakness  of  the  schoolmaster.  This  plan  of  the 
concentric  circles,  with  its  well-arranged  review  sys- 
tem, has  so  long  held  the  right  of  way  in  schools,  and 
with  the  theorizers  too,  that  its  opponents  will  not 
easily  turn  the  schoolmasters  and  their  flocks  into  a 
new  path. 

But  we  will  at  least  take  a  glimpse  of  the  other 
side  of  the  question. 

To  educate  children  through  history  is  to  do  some- 
thing more  than  to  fix  facts  in  mind  by  repetition. 
If  the  materials  are  properly  selected  for  each  grade, 
so  that  children  can  appreciate  them  and  feel  their 
meaning,  there  is  a  sense  in  which  they  relive  his- 
tory. Now,  to  get  historical  ideas  into  a  child's  life 
is  much  more  significant  than  to  get  facts  into  his 
memory.  It  is  a  matter  of  wisdom  to  select  for  each 


2l6  SPECIAL  METHOD   IN    HISTORY 

grade  what  the  children  can  thoroughly  appreciate 
and  assimilate.  Such  knowledge  has  a  much  more 
wholesome  effect  both  upon  the  intellect  and  upon 
the  heart,  than  knowledge  that  must  be  dinned  into 
his  mind  by  later  repetitions  before  he  gets  it  fixed. 
The  reason,  perhaps,  why  this  repeated  memory 
cram  of  the  concentric  circles,  this  more  or  less  me- 
chanical reiteration  by  successive  reviews  is  deemed 
necessary,  is  that  the  facts  never  have  been  properly 
assimilated,  and  a  forcing  process  of  reviews  is  the 
only  thing  that  can  pound  them  into  the  memory. 
The  failure  to  select  history  materials  suitable  to  the 
true  life  and  spirit  of  children  compels  the  teacher 
to  resort  to  a  system  of  routine  drills  to  make  up  the 
deficiency.  The  schoolmaster  prides  himself  upon 
his  rigorous  review  drills,  he  ought  to  be  ashamed 
of  himself  for  making  them  necessary. 

The  materials  used  in  each  grade  should  be  such 
as  the  children  can  master  and  assimilate  as  they  go 
along.  It  thus  enters  as  a  daily  nutrient  into  their 
lives,  building  up  and  strengthening  character  and 
disposition.  It  is  a  crude  and  thoughtless  method  to 
lay  out  a  long  period  of  history  and  say,  —  let  the 
children  run  over  this  once  and  pick  up  what  they 
can,  let  them  go  over  it  a  second  time  and  gather 
a  little  more,  and  the  third  time  the  same.  Such  a 
plan  goes  at  the  problem  blindly,  dodging  the  chief 
pedagogical  problems,  such  as  the  nature  and  fitness 
of  different  historical  materials  and  the  adaptation  of 


EIGHTH-GRADE  HISTORY  2 17 

those  selected  to  the  marked  stages  and  changes  in 
childhood  and  youth. 

The  use  of  biographies  in  the  first  series  of  the 
concentric  circles  is  by  no  means  a  solution  of  these 
difficulties.  To  run  over  the  whole  of  European  and 
American  history  in  brief  biographies  as  a  primary 
course,  shows  no  pedagogical  discrimination.  Biog- 
raphies differ  as  much  in  their  nature  and  content, 
in  their  simplicity  or  difficulty,  as  do  other  kinds  of 
historical  material.  To  put  such  widely  different 
biographies  as  those  of  Leonidas,  Pericles,  Horatius, 
Hannibal,  Julius  Caesar,  Arminius,  Frederick  the 
Great,  Bismarck,  Richelieu,  Alfred,  Cromwell,  Glad- 
stone, Bruce,  Gustavus  Adolphus,  John  Smith,  and 
Robert  Lee  into  one  series  for  children  in  fourth  and 
fifth  years,  is  an  astonishing  piece  of  pedagogical 
freakishness.  They  do  not  belong  together  at  all. 
Horatius  and  Alfred  and  John  Smith  would  well 
consort  together  as  similar  in  quality  and  simplicity. 
But  Pericles  and  Frederick  the  Great  and  Bismarck 
and  Gladstone  are  totally  different  in  their  spirit  and 
content,  and  belong  to  a  wholly  different  era  both  in 
history  and  child  life,  if,  indeed,  they  belong  to  child- 
life  at  all.  Why  historians  should  ignore  these  stu- 
pendous differences  and  dump  such  heterogeneous 
and  ill-assorted  materials  into  one  period  of  child- 
hood is  incomprehensible.  It  is  quite  clear  that  we 
need  choice  biographies  in  every  year  of  school  life, 
and  even  in  high  school  and  college.  But  nothing 


218  SPECIAL   METHOD   IN   HISTORY 

needs  to  be  selected  with  greater  care  than  the  biogra- 
phies suitable  to  children  and  youth  in  the  successive 
periods  of  school  life.  To  put  Boone  in  with  Glad- 
stone is  as  incongruous  as  putting  primary  children 
into  high  school  classes.  We  need  the  enlivening 
and  vivifying  influence  of  appropriate  biographies 
in  each  year  of  school  life,  as  a  means  of  illustrating 
and  typifying  the  predominant  ideas  of  different 
epochs. 

The  theory  of  the  culture  of  epochs,  —  that  is,  of 
the  correspondence  between  race-growth  and  child- 
growth,  —  whatever  it  may  be  worth,  does  not  support 
the  idea  of  the  concentric  circles.  A  given  culture 
epoch  has  been  often  repeated  in  history,  but  not  in 
the  same  individual  or  nationality.  As  children  grow 
they  are  expected  to  grow  out  of  one  age  into  another. 
Just  to  the  extent  to  which  a  child  really  lives  and 
experiences  a  period  of  history,  he  should  outgrow  it 
and  never  be  compelled  to  become  immersed  in  it 
again.  It  will  reecho  in  his  later  experience,  but  the 
man  should  never  become  a  boy  again  in  the  full 
sense. 

The  assumption  that  the  experience  of  Germany  on 
this  point  is  conclusive  proves  too  much.  The  most 
respectable  progressive  school  in  Germany,  that  of 
Herbart  and  his  disciples,  has  long  since  abandoned 
the  idea  of  concentric  circles  in  history,  has  for  years 
laid  out  a  school  course  and  followed  a  wholly  differ- 
ent principle,  and  has  given  the  most  vigorous  reasons 


EIGHTH-GRADE   HISTORY  2 19 

for  doing  so.  The  traditional  course  of  the  German 
classical  gymnasium  is  the  one  always  cited  as  an 
example  of  the  concentric  circles.  Of  all  the  courses 
in  the  world  this  is  the  one  perhaps  least  adapted  to 
the  common  schools  of  America.  For  ten  years, 
from  the  age  of  eight  to  eighteen,  the  boys  in  a  Ger- 
man gymnasium  are  kept  solidly  at  work  upon  the 
original  Latin  and  Greek  classics.  The  common 
schools  of  this  country  have  absolutely  nothing  of 
this,  and  it  is  difficult  to  see  why  a  history  course 
based  upon  that  of  the  German  gymnasium  should 
be  foisted  upon  the  children  of  this  country.  Even 
our  high  schools  which  prepare  for  college  have 
abandoned  the  course  of  the  German  classical  gym- 
nasium, and  for  our  common  school,  which  has  wholly 
abandoned  the  classical  languages,  and  the  course  of 
study  based  upon  them,  it  is  an  anachronism  to  re- 
quire the  whole  history  of  Europe,  and  even  of  the 
world,  as  a  preface  to  American  history  in  the  seventh 
and  eighth  grades.  The  real  difficulty  with  such  a 
course  is  that  it  is  made  out  almost  wholly  from  the 
historian's  view  of  the  chronological  and  causal  con- 
nection of  events,  and  with  almost  no  regard  for 
modern  ideas  of  child-development,  that  is,  of  the 
motives  and  activities  which  predominate  in  the 
period  of  childhood  up  to  the  age  of  fourteen. 

The  points  of  defence  of  the  course  of  study  in 
history  offered  in  this  book  (as  against  the  plan  of 
concentric  circles)  may  be  briefly  put  as  follows :  — 


22O  SPECIAL  METHOD   IN   HISTORY 

1.  The   intention  is  to  select  in  each  grade  only 
those  topics  which  a  child  at  that  age  can  thoroughly 
appreciate,  enjoy,  and  assimilate,  in  short,  —  experi- 
ence, —  and  thus  receive  the  essence  of  its  educative 
influence. 

2.  Each  of  these  topics  should  be  a  centre  for  the 
organization   of   a  considerable  body  of  knowledge, 
and  a  type  which  will  bring  it  into  fruitful  comparison 
with  earlier  and  later  topics. 

3.  Thoroughness   in    knowledge   is   provided    for 

(a)  by  a  full,  descriptive,  and  interesting  treatment  of 
each  topic  the  first  time  it  is  taken  up,  tracing  out  its 
significant  relations,  and  focussing  the  facts  in  such  a 
way  as  to  show  up  its  real  meaning  and  importance. 
The  complete   mastery  of   the   topic,   as  tested   by 
reproductions  by  the  pupils,  is  possible  because  the 
subject  is  within  the  range  of  their  understanding ; 

(b)  by  frequent  comparisons  of  later  topics  with  simi- 
lar or  contrasted  topics  treated  earlier  in  the  course. 
Many  illustrations  of   these  reviews   by  comparison 
have  been  given  in  all  grades ;  (c )  by  reaching  back 
constantly  into  earlier  history,  previously  studied,  for 
the   causes  and  explanations  of  later  developments. 
This  involves,  in  a  more  direct  way,  the  excellent 
results  which  are  supposed  to  come  from  the  review 
system  of  the  concentric  circles;  because   it  brings 
the  review  of  topics  into  immediate  relation  to  later 
events  needing  such  explanation  ;  (</)  the  concentra- 
tion of  many  of  the  reading  lessons  upon  the  master- 


EIGHTH-GRADE   HISTORY  221 

pieces  of  historical  literature  throws  an  intense  side- 
light upon  history.  In  many  cases  the  impressions 
are  more  powerful  and  lasting  than  those  of  history 
itself.  This  brings  about  a  striking  review  of  histori- 
cal events  from  new  standpoints.  In  a  similar  way 
geography  lessons,  if  properly  selected  and  treated, 
are  constantly  throwing  a  new  light  upon  history; 
(<?)  the  collateral  readings  from  source-books,  histori- 
cal readers,  large  histories,  historical  novels  and  litera- 
ture, such  as  the  teacher  should  encourage  children 
to  read,  will  deepen  the  impressions  of  great  events 
and  ideas  in  history. 


CHAPTER  VII 

THE   CORRELATION    OF    HISTORY    WITH    OTHER    STUDIES 

IT  is  easy  to  see  that  history  is  bound  up  with 
other  studies  in  a  variety  of  close  connections. 
Sometimes  history  throws  much  light  on  geography 
or  literature,  or  the  latter  studies  contribute  valuable 
aid  to  history. 

When  once  the  important  and  even  vital  connection 
between  history  and  other  studies  is  clearly  seen, 
there  is  real  difficulty  in  drawing  accurately  the 
line  of  separation  between  them.  For  example, 
geography  and  history  are  so  closely  bound  together 
that  in  teaching  either  one  of  them  the  other  must 
be  considered.  If  we  had  no  such  independent 
study  as  geography,  the  geographical  knowledge 
necessary  to  the  understanding  of  a  good  course  in 
history  would  give  us  a  tolerably  complete  acquaint- 
ance with  political  geography.  If  history  and  geog- 
raphy were  studied  together,  as  indicated  in  the 
following  passage  from  Carlyle,  children  might  gain 
almost  as  much  geographical  knowledge  as  they  do 
at  present,  without  the  independent  study  of  geog- 
raphy. Carlyle  says :  "  History  is  evidently  the 


222 


CORRELATION   WITH  OTHER  STUDIES  223 

grand  subject  a  student  will  take  to.  Never  read  any 
such  book  without  a  map  beside  you;  endeavor  to  seek 
out  every  place  the  author  names,  and  get  a  clear 
idea  of  the  ground  you  are  on  ;  without  this  you  can 
never  understand  him,  much  less  remember  him." 

W.  C.  Collar  says,  "  Historical  instruction  without 
the  constant  accompaniment  of  geography  has  no 
solid  foundation,  is  all  in  the  air." 

Hinsdale  says :  "  The  earth  is  most  interesting 
when  considered  in  relation  to  its  human  uses. 
Geography  provides  man  his  sphere  of  life,  and 
then  finds  its  highest  interest,  not  in  its  deserts  or 
crags,  its  glaciers  or  caflons,  but  in  its  human 
elements.  Political  geography  is  nothing  but  a 
form  of  applied  history."1 

Miss  Salmon  says  :  "  The  dependence  of  history 
upon  the  physical  character  of  a  country  is  evident 
when  it  is  seen  to  what  extent  these  conditions  have 
determined  those  on  which  history  is  based.  The 
beginnings  of  nations  have  been  influenced  by  the 
existence  of  broad,  fertile  valleys,  while  very  high  or 
very  broad  mountain  chains  have,  outside  of  America, 
decided  national  frontiers.  The  necessity  for  indi- 
vidual protection  determined  the  sights  of  the  hill  for- 
tress-towns of  ancient  Greece  and  of  mediaeval  Italy, 
as  protection  again  has  led  to  the  choice  of  sites 
partly  encircled  by  water,  as  Durham,  Venice,  Bern, 
and  Constantinople  ;  or  for  strength,  as  the  towns 

1  "How  to  Study  and  Teach  History"  (Hinsdale). 


224  SPECIAL  METHOD   IN   HISTORY 

of  Grenoble  and  Belfort ;  commercial  reasons  have 
placed  towns  at  the  junction  of  two  rivers,  as  Mainz, 
Coblenz,  and  Lyons,  or  near  the  mouths  of  rivers, 
as  Philadelphia,  New  Orleans,  and  Havre.  Trade 
routes,  military  operations,  terms  of  treaties,  have 
all  been  conditioned  by  geographical  features."  l 

Not  only  the  careful  study  of  maps  and  historical 
charts  for  the  fixing  of  the  geographical  stage  of 
action  is  necessary,  but  the  free  sketching  of  maps 
on  the  blackboard  by  both  teacher  and  pupil  is  the 
best  means  of  giving  clearness  and  perfect  compre- 
hension. This  kind  of  geography  is,  if  anything, 
better  than  political  geography  studied  by  itself, 
because  it  is  an  application  of  geographical  knowl- 
edge to  human  necessities  and  a  discovery  of  the 
reasons  for  the  facts. 

Hinsdale  says  further :  "  There  are  still  other 
reasons  for  emphasizing  geography  in  connection 
with  history.  Historical  events  that  are  not  located 
by  the  pupil  are  neither  understood  nor  remembered. 
History  that  is  read  without  due  attention  to  its 
theatre  is  too  much  like  an  imaginary  account  of 
similar  transactions  in  the  moon." 

And  again  :  "  Careful  study  of  a  good  map  is  the 
next  best  thing  to  visiting  a  historical  locality  in  per- 
son. To  a  certain  extent  geography  and  history  are 
but  one  study ;  and  the  effort  now  made  in  schools 
to  study  them  in  close  connection  is  worthy  of  all 

1  "  Some  Principles  in  the  Teaching  of  History." 


CORRELATION  WITH  OTHER  STUDIES  225 

praise.  Thus  the  memory  is  wholly  dependent  upon 
the  associating  activities  of  the  mind.  Without 
them  nothing  could  be  retained  and  nothing  could 
be  learned.  Besides,  contiguity  of  space  is  one  of 
the  most  powerful  of  these  activities.  In  view  of 
these  facts  we  need  not  enlarge  upon  the  importance 
of  the  place-element  in  history." 

On  the  other  hand,  history  contributes  to  a  vital 
interest  in  geography.  It  would  hardly  be  an  ex- 
travagant statement  to  say  that  the  places  of  greatest 
geographical  interest  in  the  world  are  those  that  have 
been  made  memorable  by  historical  events,  such  as 
Bunker  Hill,  Marathon,  Gettysburg,  the  city  of 
Athens,  of  Jerusalem,  of  London,  of  Boston,  etc. 
What  interest  should  we  have  in  the  geography  of 
Scotland  apart  from  its  historical  literature  ?  What 
a  glow  of  interest  is  thrown  around  the  geography 
of  the  Great  Lakes  and  the  Mississippi  River  by  the 
canoe  voyages  of  La  Salle,  Hennepin,  Marquette, 
and  Joliet !  Starved  Rock  is  the  most  interesting 
geographical  feature  in  Illinois.  In  New  York 
State,  the  Hudson,  Lake  Champlain,  and  the  central 
lake  region  have  a  hundred  lively  historical  associa- 
tions. On  this  point  Hinsdale  says  :  "  Men  toil  and 
suffer  to  visit  countries  and  places  having  little  liv- 
ing interest.  The  Holy  Places  attract  pilgrims 
because  they  have  been  made  holy  by  devoted  and 
self-denying  lives.  Moses  is  greater  than  Mount 
Sinai,  Abraham  than  Palestine,  Jesus  than  the  Lake 

Q 


226  SPECIAL  METHOD  IN   HISTORY 

of  Galilee.  It  is  very  true  that  back  of  the  event 
He  causes,  thoughts,  feelings,  and  activities ;  but 
there  is  a  certain  tendency  to  look  for  them,  and 
also  the  event  itself,  in  the  locality." 

The  yoking  together  of  history  and  geography  in 
the  same  lesson  in  history  need  not  produce  any 
confusion  of  mind  as  to  which  is  history  and  which 
is  geography.  The  lesson  is  primarily  a  history 
lesson,  and  the  standpoint  from  which  the  geographi- 
cal facts  are  viewed  is  historical.  So  long  as  the  con- 
trolling historical  idea  of  the  lesson  is  kept  clearly  in 
mind,  it  makes  no  difference  how  many  tributary 
geographical  facts  are  drawn  into  the  treatment. 

In  a  geographical  lesson,  likewise,  historical  facts 
may  be  drawn  in  so  long  as  they  contribute  to  the 
better  understanding  of  the  chief  geographical  topic. 
Confusion  arises  only  when  the  teacher  is  unable  to 
keep  a  controlling  idea  or  standpoint  clearly  in  mind, 
but  instead,  shifts  back  and  forth  between  history  and 
geography. 

History  and  literature  are  not  less  closely  bound 
together  and  merged  into  one  than  history  and  geog- 
raphy. Many  of  the  best  products  of  historical 
literature  are  among  the  best  sources  of  history.  The 
Homeric  poems  are  not  historical  in  the  strict  modern 
sense,  and  yet  no  one  would  be  disposed  to  deny  the 
overwhelming  influence  which  they  exerted  upon  the 
strictly  historical  period  of  Greek  life.  It  seems  un- 
questionable also  that  we  have  in  Homer  the  best 


CORRELATION   WITH  OTHER  STUDIES  22J 

descriptions  of  early  Greek  customs  and  ideas  evei 
given  to  the  world.  The  early  ballads  of  European 
countries  are  historical  in  a  similar  degree,  and  are 
extremely  pleasing  to  children.  W.  C.  Collar  says  : 
"  But  for  awakening  the  sympathies  and  moving  the 
imagination  of  children,  I  attach  greater  importance 
to  the  aid  to  be  derived  from  imaginative  literature, 
particularly  poetry.  Poetry  gives  life  and  reality  to 
history.  History  describes,  poetry  paints;  and  this 
is  often  true  of  poetry  that  ranks  neither  in  the  first 
nor  in  the  second  order.  For  years  I  have  found  it 
very  useful  to  have  Macaulay's  '  Lays  of  Ancient 
Rome  '  read  in  connection  with  the  mythical  part  of 
Roman  history.  There  is  nothing  like  the  magic 
charm,  whether  of  sublimity  or  pathos,  that  poetry 
lends  to  historical  events,  persons,  and  places.  Who 
can  read  Milman's  magnificent  ode  on  the  Israelites 
crossing  the  Red  Sea  without  a  consciousness,  if  he 
reflects  upon  it,  of  a  fresh  and  more  vivid  realization 
of  a  scene  familiar  to  his  imagination  from  childhood  ? 
How  Scott's  beautiful  hymn,  sung  by  Rebecca  in 
'  Ivanhoe,'  makes  us  see,  as  the  Scripture  narrative 
never  did,  the  slow  onward  toiling  of  the  Israelites 
through  the  rocky  fastnesses  and  over  the  sandy 
deserts  of  Arabia,  guided  by  the  pillar  of  cloud  by 
day  and  the  pillar  of  fire  by  night ! " 1 

Nearly   all   the   great   epic    poems,  such   as   the 

»  "  Methods  of  Teaching  and  Studying  History  "  (Hall> 


228  SPECIAL  METHOD   IN   HISTORY 

"jEneid,"  the  "  Iliad,"  and  "Odyssey,"  the  story  oi 
Siegfried,  the  Arthurian  legends  and  tales  of  chivalry, 
have  a  distinct  historical  side,  no  matter  how  mythical 
they  may  appear. 

Some  of  the  longer  poems  most  commonly  used  in 
the  schools,  such  as  "  Marmion,"  "  The  Lady  of  the 
Lake,"  "  Courtship  of  Miles  Standish,"  and  "  Evange- 
line,"  and  a  few  of  the  plays  of  Shakespeare,  such  as 
"Julius  Caesar"  and  "Henry  VIII,"  are  still  more 
explicitly  historical.  This  poetical  material  is  exten- 
sively used  in  the  regular  reading  exercises  and  gives 
greater  intensity  and  vividness  to  historical  events. 
The  orations  of  the  great  speakers  of  the  world,  such 
as  those  of  Webster,  Burke,  Cicero,  and  Demosthenes, 
are  wholly  historical,  and  are  among  the  most  interest- 
ing and  powerful  expressions  of  historical  scenes. 
Quite  a  number  of  these  are  used  in  the  grammar 
and  high  schools.  Again,  historical  novels,  such  as 
Scott's  "  The  Talisman,"  Thackeray's  "  The  Vir- 
ginians," and  Cooper's  "The  Spy,"  are  very  signifi- 
cant in  their  bearings  on  history.  Even  many  of  the 
most  famous  essays,  as  those  of  Macaulay,  Carlyle, 
Motley,  Emerson,  Lowell,  and  Schurz,  are  discus- 
sions of  purely  historical  biographies  or  events. 
Many  of  the  best  prose  stories  used  in  the  grades 
are  historical,  such  as  Hawthorne's  "  Grandfather's 
Chair,"  Scott's  "Tales  of  a  Grandfather,"  Haw- 
thorne's "  Biographical  Stories,"  some  of  Lamb's 
"  Tales  of  Shakespeare,"  Plutarch's  "  Lives,"  etc. 


CORRELATION  WITH  OTHER  STUDIES  229 

It  is  possible  in  this  way  barely  to  suggest  the 
numerous  and  vital  relations  between  history  on 
the  one  side,  and  readings  from  good  literature  on 
the  other. 

In  all  the  preceding  chapters  which  discuss  the 
value  of  historical  materials  in  the  grades  from  the 
fourth  through  the  eighth,  we  have*  given  scores 
of  illustrations  of  this  close  connection  between 
history  and  literature.  While  each  study  maintains 
its  separateness,  the  powerful  side-lights  thrown 
upon  history  by  literature  and  reading  exercises  are 
such  as  to  greatly  reenforce  and  even  to  vitalize 
the  lessons  of  history.  Our  American  literature 
abounds  in  the  most  striking  illustrations  of  the 
poetic  illumination  of  historical  events.  The  Bible 
is  the  great  standard  illustration  of  the  mingling  of 
the  historical  and  poetic  elements,  and  for  this  reason, 
in  large  part,  the  Bible  has  had  a  marvellous  influence 
upon  the  world.  In  a  similar  way  it  would  not  be 
difficult  to  make  up  a  bible  of  American  history  and 
literature,  and  our  course  of  study  should  contain 
just  this. 

The  common  schools  can  greatly  improve  their 
course  of  study  and  much  increase  the  educative 
influence  of  history  and  literature  by  a  systematic 
plan  of  emphasizing  these  relations  between  the  three 
studies,  history,  geography,  and  reading. 

In  the  course  of  study  to  which  one  chapter  of  this 
volume  is  given  we  may  see  an  effort  to  run  the  lines 


230  SPECIAL  METHOD   IN   HISTORY 

of  history,  geography,  and  literature  parallel.  This 
parallelism  may  be  observed  in  the  following  points : 
In  the  earliest  historical  and  geographical  studies, 
the  home  neighborhood  is  taken  first,  and  from  this 
point  as  a  radiating  centre  both  geography  and 
history  are  traced  outward  to  the  surrounding  states 
and  to  America  as  a  whole ;  afterwards  to  Europe 
and  other  continents.  In  the  fourth  and  fifth  grades 
the  stories  of  the  pioneers  of  America  and  of  the 
ocean  explorers  deal  with  precisely  the  same  geograph- 
ical regions  which  are  studied  in  the  geography  of 
the  same  grades.  There  is  not  an  important  river 
valley  or  mountain  region  in  the  United  States  which 
is  not  made  interesting  to  children  by  one  or  more 
of  the  famous  pioneer  stories,  while  British  America, 
Mexico,  and  the  West  Indies  are  not  behind  in  the 
fame  of  early  explorers.  This  makes  the  geography 
and  history  of  North  America  the  basis  of  study  for 
two  full  years  in  the  intermediate  grades.  This  plan 
of  running  the  two  studies  parallel  introduces  scores 
of  interesting  and  instructive  relationships  between 
them.  Almost  every  lesson  in  history  is  a  lesson  in 
geography  in  North  America,  and  scarcely  a  topic  in 
geography  can  be  handled  without  involving  impor- 
tant facts  in  history.  In  the  reading  lessons  many  of 
the  choicest  American  poems,  ballads,  and  stories, 
having  a  strong  historical  and  geographical  setting, 
are  also  studied,  such  as  Irving's  "  Rip  Van  Winkle," 
"Sleepy  Hollow,"  and  "  Dolph  Heiliger";  "The 


CORRELATION  WITH  OTHER  STUDIES  231 

Great  Stone  Face,"  "  Hiawatha,"  "  Sheridan's  Ride," 
"  Evangeline,"  "  The  Oregon  Trail,"  Franklin's 
Autobiography,  Schurz's  "  Essay  on  Lincoln,"  Whit- 
tier's  "  Songs  of  Labor,"  "  Cobbler  Keezar's  Vision," 
"The  Merrimack,"  "Mabel  Martin,"  and  "Snow- 
Bound,"  and  many  others.  It  is  difficult  to  see  why 
any  objection  should  be  made  to  such  a  correlation 
of  studies,  while  the  advantages  springing  from  it  are 
of  the  highest  value. 

We  now  pass  on  to  the  geography  of  Europe.  For 
three  or  four  years  previous  to  this  many  of  the  most 
interesting  stories  of  European  history  and  literature 
have  been  studied  and  geographically  located, 
such  as  David,  King  Alfred,  Tell,  Bruce,  Wallace, 
many  of  the  Greek  and  Roman  stories,  Siegfried, 
Roland,  Hannibal,  Caesar,  etc.  The  great  explorers, 
Columbus,  Hudson,  Magellan,  John  Smith,  Raleigh, 
and  others  have  been  studied  in  their  European 
surroundings,  and  have  thus  created  greater  interest 
in  those  countries.  According  to  our  course  of  study 
in  the  first  part  of  sixth  grade  we  take  the  stories 
of  the  Persian  wars  in  Greece,  and  of  the  conflict 
between  Rome  and  Carthage.  These  historical  stories 
throw  a  charm  around  the  Mediterranean  countries 
which  deepens  the  effect  of  the  old  myths  and  gives 
a  strong  foothold  for  the  later  geography  of  southern 
Europe. 

During  the  sixth  year  we  continue  the  history  of 
the  colonial  settlements  in  North  America  made  by 


232  SPECIAL  METHOD   IN   HISTORY 

the  English,  Dutch,  French,  Scotch,  Swedes,  an& 
Germans,  and  have  frequent  occasion  to  visit  the 
countries  of  Europe  from  which  these  emigrants 
came.  It  is  easy  to  see  that  Europe  becomes  a  very 
important  centre  for  geographical,  historical,  and 
literary  study,  and  that  the  natural  and  vital  connec- 
tions between  the  three  studies  are  so  numerous  as 
not  only  to  produce  a  lively  interest  in  all  of  them, 
but  each  study  becomes  a  means  of  constantly 
reviewing  and  interpreting  the  facts  of  the  other  two. 
In  the  eighth  grade  the  geography  of  other  coun- 
tries, such  as  Asia,  Africa,  South  America,  the  great 
oceans  and  the  world-whole  are  studied  somewhat  in 
detail.  The  centre  toward  which  all  these  topics 
point  is  Europe.  The  chief  thread  of  connection  is 
the  historical  fact  that  for  the  last  four  centuries  the 
leading  European  countries  have  been  engaged  in 
exploring  and  subjugating  the  whole  world  from 
Europe  as  a  centre.  The  first  great  exploring 
voyages  were  followed  by  large  emigrations  of  Span- 
iards, English,  Dutch,  Portuguese,  and  French,  which 
have,  little  by  little,  put  the  less  civilized  nations 
under  contribution  to  Europe.  This  may  at  least  be 
regarded  as  one  of  the  strong  threads  of  geographical 
connection  between  Europe  and  the  rest  of  the 
world.  The  great  traffic  routes  to  North  and  South 
America  and  to  Asia  by  way  of  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope  and  the  Mediterranean,  are  the  product  of  this 
historical  development  of  geography. 


CORRELATION  WITH   OTHER  STUDIES  233 

Throughout  the  work  of  the  seventh  and  eighth 
grades  the  natural  connections  between  geography 
and  history  are  kept  up.  In  these  grades  the  litera- 
ture of  Europe,  which  is  partly  historical  in  character, 
especially  that  of  England,  finds  recognition  in  a  full 
treatment  of  many  of  the  best  English  classics,  such 
as  the  "  Merchant  of  Venice,"  Plutarch's  "  Lives," 
"Vicar  of  Wakefield,"  "Tom  Brown's  School  Days," 
"Julius  Caesar,"  "Roger  de  Coverley,"  "Lady  of 
the  Lake,"  "The  Deserted  Village,"  Macaulay's 
"Historical  Essays,"  Motley's  "Peter  the  Great," 
Dickens's  "  Tale  of  Two  Cities,"  and  a  large  number 
of  other  poems  and  historical  stories. 

It  may  be  seen  from  this  discussion  of  the  corre- 
lation between  geography,  history,  and  literature  that 
the  United  States  and  Europe  become  the  converg- 
ing centres  of  study  in  these  three  great  branches  of 
knowledge  in  the  common  schools.  It  is  not  deemed 
that  this  is  an  artificial  scheme  of  correlation,  but 
rather  a  natural  arrangement  of  studies  according  to 
their  fitness  to  arouse  the  intellectual  and  moral 
activities  of  children,  and  to  equip  them  with  a  body 
of  knowledge  well  organized,  which  will  qualify  them 
for  life.  At  every  point  in  the  selection  of  these 
materials  it  is  necessary  to  abide  by  those  funda- 
mental, pedagogical  principles  which  will  secure  to 
the  children  the  best  development  of  their  own 
powers  and  character  and  at  the  same  time  their 
equipment  for  life  in  the  modern  world. 


234  SPECIAL  METHOD   IN   HISTORY 

The  correlation  of  history  with  natural  science  has 
as  yet  attracted  but  little  attention.  It  is  apparent 
at  a  glance  that  the  progress  of  the  world  has  been 
largely  due  to  scientific  discovery.  Little  effort  has 
been  made  to  bring  the  course  in  history  into  any 
close  contact  with  topics  in  natural  science  discussed 
in  the  regular  school  lessons.  There  are  a  few  prom- 
inent cases,  such  as  the  invention  and  use  of  gun- 
powder, the  mariner's  compass,  the  steam-engine,  the 
screw-propeller,  the  telegraph,  the  cotton-gin,  the 
power-loom,  the  safety-lamp,  the  electric  light,  vac- 
cination, the  monitor,  etc.,  in  which  an  invention  has 
a  pronounced  effect  upon  history  and  human  affairs. 
To  what  extent  such  topics  as  these  may  be  taught 
in  the  regular  science  lessons  parallel  with  history 
so  as  to  show  the  historical  importance  of  inventions 
remains  for  the  course  in  science  to  determine. 

One  of  the  admitted  aims  of  the  common  school 
course  is  to  give  a  child  close  practical  acquaintance 
with  modern  life.  This  includes  both  the  historical 
institutions  brought  down  from  the  past  which  are 
so  influential  upon  our  present  life  and  the  great  body 
of  scientific  knowledge,  invention,  and  discovery, 
which  has  come  to  play  such  a  controlling  part  in  all 
modern  industry  and  comfort.  The  course  of  study 
should  certainly  lead  a  child  to  a  better  understanding 
of  these  scientific  forces  in  our  society.  In  geog- 
raphy, in  which  we  deal  extensively  with  all  forms 
of  industrial  life,  many  of  the  chief  topics  of  natural 


CORRELATION   WITH   OTHER   STUDIES  235 

science  are  directly  touched  upon.  But  a  closer 
examination  of  the  content  of  history  will  bring  out 
a  great  many  important  connections  between  history 
and  natural  science.  Even  the  pioneer  stories  are 
not  lacking  in  this  valuable  sort  of  correlation.  North 
America,  under  the  eyes  of  the  explorers,  was  one 
vast  region  of  nature's  wonder  works.  Rivers,  moun- 
tains, forests,  wild  animals  and  natural  products  of 
all  sorts  reveal  those  forms  and  phenomena  of  nature 
which  children  of  that  age  are  most  inclined  to  study. 
But  in  addition  to  this  the  inventions  of  men,  such 
as  the  compass,  the  thermometer,  barometer,  and 
firearms,  glass,  steel  instruments,  the  art  of  writing, 
fire-water,  mirrors,  etc.,  are  employed  upon  their  ex- 
ploring expeditions.  Several  of  the  exploring  parties 
were  sent  out  for  purely  scientific  purposes. 

Another  source  of  scientific  interest  of  recognized 
importance  is  the  biographies  of  distinguished  invent- 
ors and  scientific  men.  Men  like  Davie,  Stephenson, 
Fulton,  Whitney,  Morse,  and  Edison  furnish  instruc- 
tive biographies  for  young  people,  and  at  the  same 
time  introduce  them  to  interesting  topics  in  natural 
science.  Many  of  the  most  important  applications 
of  natural  science  in  the  shape  of  inventions  and 
discoveries  historically  significant  in  the  history  of 
our  country  are  simple  enough  to  be  understood,  and 
the  great  changes  which  this  sort  of  progress  has 
made  can  be  appreciated. 

In  connection  with  history,  geography,  and  natural 


236  SPECIAL  METHOD  IN  HISTORY 

science,  there  has  been  opened  up  of  late  a  very  im- 
portant field  of  constructive  effort  on  the  part  of 
children  which  is  destined  in  a  short  time  to  work 
out  great  improvements  in  education.  We  have  al- 
ready discussed  the  value  of  manual  training  and 
constructive  work  in  connection  with  history  and 
literature  in  building  houses  and  forts,  in  making 
furniture  and  tools,  and  in  shaping  other  simple  prod- 
ucts of  pioneer  or  primitive  society,  including  such 
things  as  making  a  loom,  weaving  cloth,  tanning 
leather,  constructing  boats,  huts,  etc.  But  in  addi- 
tion to  these  forms  of  making  and  doing,  history  and 
geography  together  lead  us  deeply  into  industrial  life 
of  all  sorts,  with  its  machines  and  processes,  such  as 
mill-wheels,  saws,  lathes,  augers,  drill  machines,  metal 
work  of  all  kinds,  and  the  reduction  of  raw  material 
many  of  which  the  children  may  illustrate  and  work 
out  in  a  crude  way.  In  geography  also  many  of  the 
inventions  based  upon  natural  science  find  their  im- 
mediate use.  The  experiments  involved  in  natural 
science  study  require  also  a  use  of  materials,  tools, 
and  instruments  closely  akin  to  the  work  of  manual 
training.  The  vital  relationship  of  all  these  differ- 
ent studies  with  one  another  when  clearly  seen  and 
worked  out  is  destined  to  give  a  unity  and  consist- 
ency to  all  our  efforts  in  different  studies,  which 
they  at  present  greatly  lack. 

It  may  be  said  in  conclusion  on  the  subject  of  cor- 
relation that  all  the  important   studies,  such  as  his- 


CORRELATION   WITH  OTHER  STUDIES  237 

tory,  reading,  geography,  science,  and  manual  training, 
have  a  strong  and  increasing  tendency  to  culminate 
in  the  forms  of  fine  art  as  we  find  them  in  music, 
painting,  sculpture,  ceramics,  woven  fabrics,  archi- 
tecture, and  literature.  For  example,  music  as  applied 
to  singing  of  classic,  patriotic,  and  religious  songs, 
greatly  intensifies  and  strengthens  the  educative 
effect.  Many  of  the  best  historical  paintings,  as 
the  landing  of  Columbus,  his  reception  by  Ferdi- 
nand and  Isabella,  and  others  have  a  distinct  edu- 
cative value  in  connection  with  history.  Most  of 
the  best  works  of  modern  sculpture  in  this  country 
deal  with  historical  topics,  and  some  of  the  famous 
buildings  in  America,  and  especially  in  Europe,  have 
both  an  historical  and  architectural  importance.  Cer- 
tainly the  leading  forms  of  architecture  can  be  made 
familiar  to  children  in  connection  both  with  history 
and  geography.  The  more  our  teachers  accustom 
themselves  to  discover  and  appreciate  these  numer- 
ous relationships  between  studies,  the  greater  intelli- 
gence and  rationality  they  will  find  in  all  studies. 
But  one  of  the  things  most  needed  at  first  is  a  course 
of  study  in  which  the  various  branches  of  knowledge 
are  selected  and  arranged  with  a  definite  regard  for 
the  interesting  and  appropriate  correlations  which 
are  known  to  exist  between  the  studies. 


CHAPTER  VIII 

COURSE   OF    STUDY    IN    HISTORY 

THE  following  Course  of  Study  in  History,  based 
on  the  ideas  discussed  in  this  book,  is  designed  for 
classes  from  the  third  through  the  eighth  grade  of  the 
common  school.  If  this  course  seems  too  elaborate 
for  some  schools,  and  needs  to  be  improved  by  the 
omission  of  some  topics,  it  may  still  serve  as  a  sub- 
stantial basis  for  the  course  as  a  whole. 

There  are  a  number  of  problems  to  be  solved  in 
working  out  such  a  course  of  study. 

After  the  aim  has  been  fixed  and  the  general 
theory  for  the  best  selection  of  materials  established, 
we  must  decide  the  relative  importance  of  American 
and  European  history  in  the  common  school ;  the 
relation  of  the  history  to  the  reading  lessons,  litera- 
ture, and  geography  in  the  corresponding  grades ; 
and  finally  the  basis  for  the  selection  of  leading 
topics  for  each  year. 

This  chapter  will  outline  the  course,  not  only  in 

history,  but  also  in  the  related  historical  and  classical 

238 


COURSE  OF  STUDY  IN   HISTORY  23$ 

readings,  and  in  geography,  so  as  to  show  in  a 
simple  form  the  interrelations  of  history,  reading, 
and  geography. 

In  this  course  of  study  American  history  is  made 
the  chief  basis  and  backbone  of  history  instruction 
for  each  grade  from  the  fourth  year  on.  The  reasons 
for  this,  previously  discussed,  are  briefly  summarized 
as  follows :  — 

1.  American  history,  beginning  with  the  simplest 
conditions  of  early  exploration  and  settlement,  ad- 
vances by  regular  steps  in  a  process  of  growth  to  our 
present  complex  conditions  of  political  and  social  and 
industrial  life.     In  a  relatively  short  period  most  of 
the   important   stages  of   national   growth   are  well 
illustrated  in  our  own  history. 

2.  The  chief  epochs  and  crises  of  our  history  are 
extremely  instructive  and  interesting  to  children. 

3.  The  excellent  biographies  of  the  leading  charac- 
ters of  American  history  are  of  a  superior  quality, 
and  have   great   educational  value  for  children  and 
youth. 

4.  The  best  parts  of  European  history  of  educative 
value  for  children  can  be  placed  side  by  side  with  the 
corresponding   and   appropriate   parts   of   American 
history. 

5.  A  general  chronological  outline  of  the  world's 
history  is  out  of  the  question  for  the  common  school. 
A  wholly  wrong  viewpoint  for  judging  the  course  in 
history  in  the  common  school  is  furnished  by  a  world- 


240  SPECIAL  METHOD   IN   HISTORY 

chronology  and  by  the  course  of  study  in  the  classical 
gymnasium,  which  is  often  cited. 

6.  History  in  our  common    school   should   begin 
with    America   and   end   with    America,   with   such 
incorporation  of    European   history  as  will  give  the 
necessary  breadth  and  variety  of  culture.     The  par- 
allel reading  lessons  based  on  European  classics  and 
history  stories  will   supplement  the  history  studies 
with  those  best  parts  of  European  culture  which  chil- 
dren are  capable  of  appropriating. 

7.  Our  present  course  of  study  and  the  whole  ten- 
dency of  American  schools,  show  that  American  his- 
tory must  be  the  chief  staple  of  our  history  course. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  increasing  use  of  European 
classics  and  historical  tales  in  our  schools  shows  our 
appreciation  for  the  best  elements  of  European  cul- 
ture.    There  is  not  the  slightest  disposition  in  this 
course  to  limit  our  history  to  a  narrow  Americanism. 

European  History.     Its  Place  in  the  Common  School 
and  its  Relation  to  American  History 

I.  The  fairy  tales,  folklore,  and  mythologies  of 
European  countries  are,  in  this  course,  not  regarded 
as  a  part  of  the  history  proper,  but  as  belonging 
rather  to  the  oral  work  in  literature  of  the  first  three 
years  of  school.  These  stories  and  myths  constitute 
a  very  important  part  of  the  educative  materials  of 
primary  grades,  and  are  indispensable  both  in  them- 


COURSE  OF  STUDY  IN  HISTORY  241 

selves  and  as  a  preliminary  to  history.  They  are 
sufficiently  important  to  be  regarded  as  a  distinct 
body  of  educative  material.  Their  separate  and 
growing  importance  in  primary  grades  is  shown  in 
many  ways. 

2.  A  few  important  topics  of  European   history 
are  selected  for  full  treatment  in  each  grade  from  the 
fourth  year  on.     They  may  precede  or  follow  the 
American  stories  in  the  same  grade.     They  are  not 
mere  supplements  to  American  history,  but  important 
culture  products  for  separate  treatment. 

3.  The  selection  of  these  topics  is  based,  not  upon 
chronology,  but  upon  the  quality  of  the  story,  its 
spirit  and  setting,  and  its  fitness  to  educate  children 
of  the  given  age.     European  history  offers  the  widest 
choice   from  the  simple  to  the  complex,   from   the 
worthless  to  the  most  valuable,  from  savagery  and 
barbarism  to  the  highest  culture  state  reached  by 
Athens,  Paris,  or   London.     It  is  an   incomparable 
error  to  dump  all  this  into  a  child's  mind  in  chrono- 
logical order  in  the  grades. 

4.  Many   biographies    and    events    in    European 
history  have  a  close  kinship  with  similar   topics  in 
American  history.     These  should  be  brought  side  by 
side  in  the  same  grade.     If  they  breathe  the  same 
spirit,  teach  the  same  lesson  under  different  condi- 
tions, they  will  double  its  educative  effect.     It  is  well 
to  compare  Columbus's  explorations  to  the  west  with 
those  of  De  Gama  to  the  east.     Champlain,  La  Salle, 


242  SPECIAL   METHOD   IN   HISTORY 

and  George  Rogers  Clark  were  men  of  the  same 
heroic  temper  and  endurance  as  David  and  Corio- 
lanus  and  King  Alfred. 

5.  The  real  educative  influence  of   European  his- 
tory can   be   secured  to  children  by  such  a  careful 
selection   of    those   episodes   best   adapted   to   their 
interest    and    understanding    and    to    their    social 
needs. 

6.  American  topics  should  be  traced  back  to  their 
sources   in    European   history  and   European  topics 
followed  to  their  results  in  America.     The  books  and 
maps  by  which  this  can  be  done  are  now  much  more 
available  than  formerly. 

Selection  of  a  Few  Leading   Topics 

In  the  course  here  offered  a  very  few  prominent 
standard  topics  of  American  history  are  selected  for 
each  grade.  This  plan  excludes  the  heaping  up  of 
miscellaneous  facts  for  memory  work  as  well  as  the 
tedious  chronological  series  for  the  early  years. 

1.  Each  one   of  these  topics  should  fit  the  age, 
understanding,  and  interest  of  children.     Often  the 
activities,  games,  drawings,  and  constructions  incident 
to  such  history  stories  are  the  natural  reactions  of  the 
children  upon  the  material  and  show  an  important 
phase  of  its  pedagogical  fitness. 

2.  Each  topic   should  contain  a  vital  core  which 
gives    it    a    real    educative   significance.     It    should 


COURSE  OF  STUDY  IN  HISTORY  243 

plant  in   a   child's   mind  a  living  germ   capable  of 
strong  and  beneficent  growth. 

3.  Such  a  topic  may  be  a  biography,  an  event,  a 
campaign,  an  invention,  or  the  growth  of  an  idea. 

4.  Each  one  of  these  topics  should  be  worked  out 
as  a  complete  unit  of   thought,  interesting  in  itself 
and  in  the  associated  facts,   and  provoking  inquiry 
by  a  close  succession  of   connected  facts,  giving  a 
rational  sense  and  movement. 

5.  Biographical  stories  furnish  a  large  number  of 
such   topics   and   constitute,  especially  in   the  early 
years  of  history  study,  the  choicest  and  most  educa- 
tive historical  material. 

6.  American    history   is    probably   the   richest   in 
choice   biographical   stories   of   any  country  in   the 
world,  and,  as  much  of  this  material  comes  from  the 
earlier,  simple  stages  of  our  pioneer  life,  it  is  espe- 
cially appropriate  to  children. 

7.  Such    biographical    and    other    topics    are,    of 
course,  leading  types   and   become  centres  for   the 
organization   of   historical   material.     They  simplify 
history  by  focussing  it  in  a  few  leading  characters, 
events,  or  ideas.     Such  important  central  topics  also 
form  an  excellent  basis  for  comparison  and  review, 
biography   being    compared   with    biography,   event 
with  event,  etc.,  the  children  being   led  constantly 
to    look  backward   over  their   previous   studies   for 
comparisons. 


244  SPECIAL  METHOD  IN  HISTORY 

The  Reinforcement  of  History  through  Choice  Read- 
ings from  American  and  European  Literature 

Great  is  the  value  of  American  and  European  liter- 
ature as  a  reinforcement  to  the  history  instruction. 
In  the  regular  reading  work  of  the  schools,  from  the 
third  grade  upward,  there  is  a  large  amount  and 
variety  of  classic  reading  matter  which  is  now  used 
in  the  schools  —  poems,  biographies,  ballads,  narra- 
tive history,  novel,  essay,  and  epic  story,  such  as 
"  Marmion,"  "  Courtship  of  Miles  Standish,"  "  Hora- 
tius  at  the  Bridge,"  "Paul  Revere's  Ride,"  Scott's 
"  Tales  of  a  Grandfather,"  "  Ivanhoe,"  Hawthorne's 
"  Grandfather's  Chair,"  etc.  In  order  to  show  the 
value  of  this  literary  material  used  in  reading  lessons 
as  a  supplement  to  history  a  list  of  the  parallel 
classic  reading  now  available,  and  much  of  it 
now  in  common  use,  is  shown  in  each  grade: 
(i)  the  American  selections,  and  (2)  the  European 
selections. 

In  judging  the  importance  of  this  connection  be- 
tween history  and  reading  the  following  considera- 
tions should  be  kept  in  mind :  — 

I.  Much  of  the  best  literature  of  America  and 
Europe  is  historical  in  character  and  content,  and, 
so  far  as  it  enters  into  the  reading  course,  should  be 
brought  into  the  closest  relation  to  the  correspond- 
ing history  topics.  No  forced  correlation  should  be 
sought,  but  what  is  natural  and  rational 


COURSE  OF  STUDY  IN   HISTORY  245 

2.  In  selecting   the   best  literary  products,  suited 
for  reading  lessons,  without  any  thought  of  teaching 
history,  we  have  been  wont  to  choose  many  poems 
and  stories  which  give  a  remarkably  full  and  clear 
description  to  great  historical  events  and  persons. 

3.  Often  a  masterpiece  of  literature  is,  for  chil- 
dren,   a   most    suggestive   treatment   of    a   topic   in 
history,     e.  g.,     Southey's     "Battle    of    Blenheim," 
Holmes's  "Grandmother's   Story   of  Bunker   Hill," 
Plutarch's    "Alexander    the    Great,"    Shakespeare's 
"Julius  Caesar,"  etc. 

4.  The  course  of  study  should  take  advantage  of 
this  very  intimate  relation  between  history  and  read- 
ing lessons,  and  thus  cause  the  reading   lessons   to 
contribute  greatly  to  the  force  and  completeness  of 
history-study.     History   seldom   takes   the   time   for 
such  an  intense  and  realistic  treatment  of  a  history 
topic  as  is  given,  for  example,  in  "  Marmion  "  of  the 
battle  of  Flodden  field  and  its  attendant  events.     Lit- 
erature has  thus  a  way  of  deepening  and  ingraining 
the   lessons   of   history,  which   is   beyond   anything 
which  history  itself  can  do. 

5.  A  careful  examination  of  this  course  of  history 
as  related  to  the  reading  will  show  that  the  history 
and   reading   lessons,  to  a  considerable   degree,  are 
laid  out  on   parallel   lines.     The  simple  reason  for 
this  is  the  fact  that  an  event  or  story  in  history  which 
thoroughly  interests  a  child  will  interest   him   still 
more  if  put  in  a  simple  literary  form  which  he  can 


246  SPECIAL   METHOD   IN   HISTORY 

understand ;  e.g.,  "  Paul  Revere's  Ride,"  "  Barbara 
Frietchie,"  "  The  Battle  of  Ivry,"  etc.  In  the  nature 
of  the  case,  when  the  history  and  reading  touch 
the  same  or  kindred  topics,  they  should  walk  close 
together. 

6.  Besides    the    English    classics   of   a   historical 
character  used  in  regular  reading  lessons  the  supple- 
mentary  books   in    literature   and    history   read   by 
children  at  home  or  in  the  school  library  may  still 
further  broaden  and  deepen  their   historical  knowl- 
edge.    Fully  half  of  the  historical  readings  indicated 
in  this  course  of   study  are  of  this  supplementary 
character.     Most   children    have    plenty   of   time   at 
home  for  this  kind  of  reading,  and  the  school  should 
give  it  a  wise  direction  and  stimulus.     The  appended 
lists  show  how  excellent  and  abundant  are  the  books 
adapted  to  each  grade  of  school. 

7.  In  most  cases  the  masterpieces  of  literature  of 
an  historical  character  are  handled  in  reading  lessons 
a  year  or  two  later  than  the  corresponding  history 
topics  in  history.     Several  reasons  may  be  assigned 
for  this :  (a)  The  difficulty  of  the  language  and  liter- 
ary form ;  e.g.,  "  Lady  of  the  Lake,"  "  Evangeline," 
Webster's    "Speech    on    Bunker    Hill,"    Plutarch's 
"  Lives,"    Franklin's    Autobiography,    and     others. 
(6)  The  artistic  quality  in  a  fine  piece  of  literature 
does  not  at  first  appeal  to  a  child,    (c)  A  masterpiece 
of  literature  has  often  a  greater  depth  and  maturity 
of  thought  regarding  an  historical  event  and  requires 


COURSE  OF  STUDY  IN  HISTORY  247 

a  more  advanced  age  in  the  pupil,  (d)  The  poem  or 
drama  often  needs  the  foregoing  history  as  a  basis 
for  its  understanding.  Such  a  poem  is  often  a  splen- 
did retrospect  and  vital  summing  up  of  earlier  his- 
torical studies ;  e.g.,  Lowell's  "  Under  the  Old  Elm," 
Webster's  orations.  It  serves  the  student  as  a  noble 
review  of  earlier  studies,  and  draws  lessons  not  seen 
at  first. 

On  the  other  hand,  many  of  the  best  poems  and 
stories  are  so  simple  and  graphic  that  they  can  be 
used  as  reading  lessons  in  the  same  grade  in  which 
the  corresponding  history  topics  are  treated ;  e.g., 
"  Courtship  of  Miles  Standish,"  "  Paul  Revere's 
Ride,"  "Grandmother's  Story  of  Bunker  Hill," 
Hawthorne's  "  Grandfather's  Chair,"  and  others. 

THIRD  GRADE 
HISTORY 

Christmas  celebration :  The  Christmas  story,  with 
Christmas  tree,  pictures,  etc.  This  is  customary 
with  all  the  primary  grades.  The  story  is  narrated 
to  younger  children.  Poems  of  Christmas  time  for 
recitation  and  song.  These  exercises  do  not  partake 
so  much  of  the  character  of  instruction  as  of  enter- 
tainment and  joyful  festivity. 

Thanksgiving  celebration:  History  of  early  Thanks- 
giving days.  Poems  and  stories.  By  means  of  pic- 
tures and  stories  something  of  early  New  England 
life  is  given. 


248  SPECIAL   METHOD   IN   HISTORY 

Washington  celebration :  Stories  of  Washington. 
A  full  treatment  of  the  early  life  of  Washington  is 
not  expected,  but  an  acquaintance  with  the  more 
interesting  stories  and  surroundings  of  his  childhood. 
Other  national  characters  treated  in  a  similar  way. 

Local  history  of  the  town  or  neighborhood  :  The 
early  settlers  of  the  town  and  neighborhood.  Stories 
of  the  most  prominent  pioneers ;  where  they  came 
from.  Early  log-houses.  Hardships.  First  school- 
houses.  Early  roads  and  modes  of  travel.  Family 
history.  Grandfather  stories. 

The  family  and  neighborhood  traditions  are  the 
best  beginnings  of  history,  and  an  interest  in  them 
should  be  regularly  cultivated  both  in  the  home  and 
school.  The  grandfather  stories  give  first  notions  of 
chronology. 

Indian  life  and  relics :  Stories  of  Indian  life  and 
adventure  in  the  early  settlement  of  the  neighbor- 
hood and  of  the  region  of  country  adjacent. 

Different  nationalities  in  the  community  and  where 
they  came  from. 

The  geography  of  the  third  grade  is  expected  to 
deal  with  the  hills,  streams,  valleys,  products,  and 
occupations  of  the  village  and  adjacent  country. 
Simple  and  primitive  forms  of  industry  are  worked 
out. 

In  literature  the  Greek  and  other  myths  are  han- 
dled orally  by  the  teacher  and  told  again  by  the 
children. 


COURSE  OF  STUDY  IN   HISTORY  249 

FOURTH  GRADE 
HISTORY 

Discoveries  and  Explorers 

Pioneers  of  the  home  state  and  neighboring  states. 
The  movement  is  gradually  from  home  outward. 
For  example,  New  York  State,  as  the  home  and  start- 
ing-point, may  begin  with  the  following  stories :  — 

Henry  Hudson :  Trip  up  the  Hudson.  Other 
voyages.  Meeting  with  the  Indians.  A  map  of  the 
world  is  needed  and  a  good  board  sketch  of  the 
Hudson,  locating  the  places  of  special  interest  on 
the  trip  of  the  "Half  Moon." 

The  earliest  Dutch  settlers :  Trading  with  the 
Indians.  The  customs,  buildings,  and  dress  of  the 
Dutch.  Give  some  account  of  their  previous  home 
in  Holland.  A  map  and  pictures  are  needed. 
Drawings  may  be  made  by  the  children.  Construc- 
tions also  of  forts,  palisades,  Dutch  houses,  ovens, 
and  windmills  are  to  be  encouraged.  The  activities 
of  children  in  such  efforts  are  easily  set  going,  if 
materials  are  furnished. 

Champlain  :  Explorations.  Expeditions  against  the 
Iroquois.  First  settlements  along  the  St.  Lawrence. 
First  battle  with  the  Indians  on  the  shore  of  Lake 
Champlain.  Locate  France  on  the  map,  and  trace 
the  journey  across  the  Atlantic. 

The  Five  Nations  :  Their  homes  and  customs.  War- 
like character  and  expeditions.  The  map  of  central 


250  SPECIAL  METHOD   IN    HISTORY 

New  York  should  be  drawn  and  the  warlike  raids  of 
these  tribes  into  the  neighboring  regions  indicated. 

La  Salle :  In  Canada.  At  Niagara.  On  the 
Great  Lakes.  In  Illinois  and  on  the  lower  Missis- 
sippi. His  hardships,  dangers,  and  resolution. 
Tonty  and  Hennepin  in  relation  to  La  Salle.  Miles 
Standish  at  Plymouth.  The  trials  of  the  first  few  years. 

In  laying  out  the  fourth  year  work  for  Massachu- 
setts schools  the  story  of  the  first  settlement  of 
Plymouth  and  Boston  would  naturally  come  first,  fol- 
lowed by  other  pioneer  stories  of  New  England,  and 
the  arrangement  of  the  other  stories  of  Hudson,  etc., 
would  be  somewhat  modified.  In  planning  the  course 
for  Illinois  schools,  the  stories  of  La  Salle,  Lincoln, 
and  others  of  the  Mississippi  Valley,  would  occupy 
the  first  place,  while  the  pioneer  stories  of  more  dis- 
tant states  would  follow  later. 

Some  schools  may  prefer  to  omit  some  of  these 
stories  or  to  substitute  others  in  their  place. 

Raleigh :  Early  life.  His  attempts  at  founding 
colonies. 

John  Smith  :  Explorations.  Experiences  at  James- 
town. 

Boone  :  Life  in  Kentucky. 

Washington :  Early  life. 

Lincoln  :  Early  life  to  the  age  of  twenty. 

The  American  Pioneer  History  Stories,  in  three 
volumes,  contain  most  of  the  above  stories  and  others 
for  use  in  the  fourth  and  fifth  grades. 


COURSE  OF  STUDY  IN   HISTORY  2$  I 

OTHER   NATIONAL    STORIES 

Abraham :  The  chief  scenes  of  his  life. 

Joseph :  All  the  parts  suitable  for  children. 

David  :  His  early  life  to  the  death  of  Saul. 

These  stories  are  well  given  in  "  Bible  Stories  in 
Scripture  Language."  Use  the  map  freely.  Consult 
chapter  on  List  of  Books. 

Romulus :  Founding  of  Rome. 

Coriolanus  :  In  the  main  according  to  Plutarch. 

Cincinnatus  :  A  short  story. 

The  Roman  stories  are  well  given  in  several  of  the 
supplementary  story-books  named  in  the  lists. 

Julius  Caesar :  Conquests  in  Gaul  and  England. 

The  Angles  and  Saxons :  Their  invasion  of  Eng- 
land. 

King  Alfred :  His  war  with  the  Danes  and  later 
labors  for  his  people. 

All  the  above  stories,  both  American  and  others, 
are  designed  for  oral  treatment. 

The  English  stories  are  given  in  the  "  Story  of  the 
English,"  and  in  several  other  historical  readers.  It 
is  better  to  give  a  few  of  these  stories  in  full  and  in- 
teresting detail,  with  pictures,  maps,  and  involving 
constructive  efforts  by  the  children,  than  to  multiply 
short,  scrappy  stories. 


2$2  SPECIAL  METHOD  IN   HISTORY 

LITERATURE  AND  READING  OP  FOURTH  GRADE.  THE 
FOLLOWING  BOOKS  ARE  MUCH  USED  IN  THE  REGU- 
LAR READING  LESSONS 

Wonder  Book  and  Tanglewood  Tales  (Hawthorne) ; 
Old  Greek  Folk  Stories  (Peabody);  Greek  Heroes 
(Kingsley).  These  books  are  excellent  for  regular 
school  reading.  Story  of  Ulysses  and  Tales  of  Troy, 
both  prose  and  poetic  translations  and  narrative 
stories.  There  are  many  renderings  of  the  Greek 
myths  and  stories  suited  to  school  use.  Book  of 
Legends  (Scudder). 

Complete  translations  of  the  Iliad  and  Odyssey,  by 
Bryant,  Palmer,  and  others,  are  now  available  for 
teachers  and  pupils  for  school  and  home  use. 

Heroes  of  Asgard ;  Norse  Stories  (Mabie);  Stories 
from  the  Old  German  (Pratt) ;  Old  Norse  Stories 
(Bradish);  Siegfried  (Burt).  These  stories  of  Norse 
and  German  myths  have  been  used  for  regular  read- 
ing exercises,  or  they  may  serve  as  supplementary 
reading  matter  in  school  and  home. 

OTHER    HISTORICAL    AND    LEGENDARY    STORIES 

Used  in  regular,  supplementary,  and  home  reading : 
Old  Testament  Stories  in  Scripture  Language  —  the 
essential  parts  of  the  Bible  stories  for  school  use; 
Old  Stories  of  the  East  (Baldwin)  —  a  free  rendering 
of  the  old  Bible  stories ;  Boy's  King  Arthur  (Lanier) ; 
King  Arthur  and  His  Court  (Frost);  Stories  of  King 


COURSE  OF  STUDY   IN   HISTORY  253 

Arthur's  Round  Table  Knights ;  Tales  of  Spenser 
stories  of  the  Faerie  Queene;  Ballad  Book.  There 
are  several  good  ballad  books  giving  the  old  English, 
Scotch,  and  other  European  ballads.  They  are  im- 
portant products  of  the  old  folklore  tradition  and 
early  history. 

All  the  above  stories  and  other  books  of  similar 
character  may  be  used  partly  for  regular  reading 
exercises,  but  especially  for  supplementary  reading, 
for  special  occasions  when  the  teacher  reads  to  the 
whole  school,  and  for  home  use  at  the  fireside. 

HISTORY.       SUPPLEMENTARY    READINGS 

American  Life  and  Adventure  (Eggleston) ;  Stories 
of  Our  Country  (Johonnot).  These  books  furnish 
simple  narratives  of  interesting  scenes  of  American 
life.  Four  Great  Americans ;  Pioneers  of  the  Revo- 
lution, stories  of  Boone,  Robertson,  and  others ; 
some  of  the  American  Pioneer  History  Stories. 
Most  of  these  American  History  Stories  are  simple 
enough  to  be  read  by  the  children. 

MISCELLANEOUS 

Fifty  Famous  Stories  Retold;  Open  Sesame,  Vol. 
I  and  II  —  a  collection  of  poems,  ballads,  etc.;  The 
Arabian  Nights — most  famous  of  old  stories ;  Stories 
of  the  Old  World  (Church) ;  The  Nurnburg  Stove, 
and  other  stories;  Child  Life  in  Prose  and  Verse 
(Whittier> 


2$4  SPECIAL   METHOD   IN    HISTORY 

It  is  well  for  the  children  in  the  fourth  grade  to 
begin  to  read  for  themselves  the  simpler  stories  of 
America,  and  also  kindred  stories  of  adventure  and 
heroism  from  other  countries,  especially  from  Euro- 
pean countries.  The  oral  treatment  of  stories  in  this 
grade  is  the  best  possible  introduction  to  the  proper 
spirited  appreciation  of  such  narratives. 

GEOGRAPHY 

The  geography  of  the  fourth  grade  runs  parallel 
with  the  history.  The  Pioneer  History  stories  require 
a  clear  grasp  of  the  natural  or  physical  geography  of 
North  America  and  the  power  of  interpreting  maps. 

The  geography  of  this  year  should  contain  a  good 
description  of  the  interesting  and  striking  physical 
features  of  North  America,  its  chief  mountains,  for- 
ests, rivers,  and  zones  of  climate.  Parallel  with 
these  geographical  topics  each  pioneer  story  neces- 
sitates a  special  map  to  make  clear  the  geographical 
conditions  of  the  story. 

Many  of  the  topics  of  home  geography  treated 
in  fourth  grade  trace  out  the  origin  of  important 
products  to  various  parts  of  North  America  and  of 
the  world,  as  tropical  fruits,  tea  and  coffee,  cotton 
and  silk  goods,  fine  china  and  porcelain,  etc. 

The  advantage  of  this  close  parallelism  of  history 
and  geography  is  found  in  the  very  great  interest 
which  good  stories  lend  to  localities,  and  in  the 
mutual  help  which  these  studies  render  to  each 


COURSE  OF  STUDY  IN  HISTORY  255 

other  in  explaining  and  fixing  better  the  facts  of 
both  geography  and  history.  Each  study  reviews, 
reenforces,  and  intensifies  the  facts  taught  by  the 
other.  The  value  of  each  study  in  its  relation  to 
life  is  also  better  seen. 


FIFTH  GRADE 
EUROPEAN    EXPLORERS    IN   AMERICA 

Columbus  :  His  great  purpose  and  its  results. 

The  Cabots  :  A  short  story. 

Magellan  :  First  voyage  around  the  world. 

Cortes :  The  conquest  of  Mexico.  Indians  of 
Mexico. 

De  Soto :  His  wanderings  in  the  Southern  states. 

Coronado  :  Explorations  in  the  southwest. 

Drake:  His  buccaneering  voyage  against  the 
Spaniards. 

Western  Stories 

George  Rogers  Clark. 

Lewis  and  Clark :  Journey  up  the  Missouri. 

Fremont :  Two  expeditions  among  the  Rocky 
Mountains. 

To  California  in  1849  to  the  gold  regions. 

Powell's  descent  of  the  Colorado. 

These  stories  deal  with  two  groups  of  the  great- 
est explorers  on  sea  and  land.  They  were  men  of 
great  energy,  high  purpose,  and  unyielding  deter- 
mination. Their  deeds  are  not  always  praiseworthy, 


2$6  SPECIAL  METHOD  IN   HISTORY 

but  they  are  striking  types  of  the  men  of  their  time, 
and  in  the  main  men  of  noble  character. 

HISTORY,    EUROPEAN 

Spanish  and  Portuguese  Stories 

Isabella  of  Spain. 

Christians  and  Moors  in  Spain :  Conquest  of 
Granada.  Irving's  stories  furnish  some  good  mate- 
rial for  the  teacher. 

Prince  Henry  and  De  Gama :  Exploration  of  the 
coast  of  Africa.  The  efforts  of  the  Portuguese  to 
find  an  eastern  route  to  India  and  the  results  should 
be  compared  with  Columbus's  and  Spain's  efforts 
toward  the  west. 

English  History 

William  the  Conqueror :  Conquest  of  England. 

Richard  I :  His  crusades.    His  knightly  adventures. 

John  and  the  Great  Charter. 

Elizabeth  :  In  connection  with  Raleigh  and  Drake. 
Story  of  the  Armada. 

There  are  several  excellent  books  covering  these 
topics,  as  The  Story  of  the  English,  Child's  History 
of  England,  etc. 

Scotch  History 

William  Wallace  and  Robert  Bruce. 

Tales  of  a  Grandfather  (Scott)  and  several  other 
books  give  these  famous  stories  in  good  form  for 
schools,  but  somewhat  difficult. 


COURSE  OF  STUDY  IN   HISTORY  257 

READING 

Partly  for  regular  school  work  and  partly  for  home 
reading. 

I.     American 

Hiawatha  (Longfellow)  —  much  used  as  a  regular 
reader;  American  Explorers  (Higginson)  —  much 
original  material ;  Heroes  of  the  Middle  West  (Cath- 
erwood) ;  Discovery  of  the  Old  Northwest  (Baldwin) ; 
Colonial  Children  (Hart)  —  source  material;  Source 
Book  of  American  History  (Hart) — excellent ;  Ameri- 
can Historical  Tales  (Morris) ;  Children's  Life  of 
Abraham  Lincoln  (Putnam).  Children  should  be 
encouraged  at  school  and  home  to  read  and  enjoy 
this  class  of  books. 

II.     English  and  Scotch 

Tales  of  Chivalry  (Rolfe) ;  Tales  from  English 
History  (Rolfe)  —  prose  and  verse.  Heroic  ballads, 
especially  English  and  Scotch. 

Robin  Hood(Pyle) —  first-class  stories  ;  Tales  from 
Scottish  History  (Rolfe)  ;  Story  of  the  English  (Guer- 
ber)  —  earlier  parts. 

STORIES    OF    OTHER   EUROPEAN   COUNTRIES 

Reading  and  Literature 

Lays  of  Ancient  Rome  (Macaulay);  Jason's  Quest 
(Lowell)  —  Story  of  the  Golden  Fleece ;  Ten  Boys  on 
the  Road  from  Long  Ago  —  partly  English  stories ; 


2$8  SPECIAL  METHOD   IN   HISTORY 

Stories  from  Herodotus  —  Croesus,  Cyrus,  and  others  ; 
Story  of  the  Greeks  (Guerber)  —  the  earlier  parts; 
Story  of  Roland  (Baldwin) — age  of  Charlemagne; 
Ulysses  among  the  Phaeacians  (Bryant)  —  simple 
poetic  form  ;  the  Odyssey  of  Homer  (Palmer) — poetic 
prose  rendering ;  Book  of  Golden  Deeds  —  many 
short  stories. 

Most  of  these  are  famous  world-stories  which  are 
not  only  interesting  to  children,  but  of  culture  value 
as  part  of  the  race  thought  and  experience.  In  the 
regular  lessons  in  history  and  reading  only  a  part  of 
this  historical  and  literary  matter  can  be  treated. 
But  the  leisure  hours  of  children  in  school  and  at 
home  cannot  be  better  employed  than  in  this  reading, 
which  expands  the  mind  beyond  the  narrow  range  of 
school  lessons.  The  geographical  theatre  of  these 
stories  should  be  clearly  understood  as  a  basis  for 
clear  knowledge. 

Two  years  are  thus  given  to  the  pioneer  period  of 
American  history,  dealing  with  the  life,  difficulties, 
and  surroundings  of  the  explorers  and  very  earliest 
settlers.  Chronology  is  of  but  little  importance, 
although  a  few  leading  dates  can  be  fixed.  The 
great  thing  is  to  produce  a  strong  impression  by  a 
complete,  animated,  and  realistic  protraiture  of  a  lead- 
ing character  or  events  in  which  he  figured.  The  pio- 
neer period  of  American  history  lasted,  however,  from 
1492  to  1850,  or  even  later,  and  one  of  our  historians 
has  called  attention  to  the  fact  that  the  most  marked 


COURSE  OF  STUDY  IN   HISTORY  259 

and  characteristic  traits  of  American  character  have 
been  found  usually  upon  the  frontier.  As  indicated 
in  the  course,  parallel  to  these  American  stories  runs 
a  series  of  European  history  stories,  somewhat  similar 
in  tone  and  general  simplicity  of  life. 

With  these  statements  in  mind,  it  will  be  possible 
to  see  the  relation  of  this  entire  course  of  history 
study  to  the  parallel  course  in  geography. 

The  fourth,  fifth,  and  sixth  grade  geography  deals 
chiefly  with  the  United  States  and  North  America, 
thus  running  parallel  to  much  of  the  history  of  the 
same  grades. 

In  the  seventh  grade  the  geography  of  Europe  is 
mainly  studied.  It  will  be  observed  that  the  sixth- 
grade  history  has  had  much  to  do  with  Europe,  both 
directly,  as  in  the  Persian  and  Punic  wars,  and  in- 
directly in  the  relations  of  colonial  settlement  and 
development  to  European  states,  wars,  etc.  Besides 
this,  the  myths,  history  stories,  and  literature  of 
European  countries  have  been  much  used  in  the 
fourth  and  fifth  grades,  where  the  geographical  loca- 
tions of  many  of  them  have  been  fixed,  as  in  the  case 
of  Ulysses  in  the  Mediterranean,  Siegfried  on  the 
Rhine,  Horatius  at  Rome,  Alfred  in  England,  Isabella 
in  Spain,  and  many  others. 


20O  SPECIAL  METHOD   IN   HISTORY 

SIXTH  GRADE 
HISTORY 

European  History 

The  Persian  wars  :   Contact  of  Persia  with  Greece. 

Darius  and  Xerxes  :    Marathon  and  Plataea. 

The  battle  of  Salamis :  The  leading  characters  also. 

The  Punic  wars  :  Rome  against  Carthage.  Han- 
nibal and  Fabius.  Regulus. 

The  Scipios :  The  courage  and  perseverance  of  the 
Romans. 

Colonial  History  of  America 

Virginia:  James  I,  Bacon,  Washington.  Develop- 
ment of  representative  government.  RoyaJ  govern- 
ors. Emphasis  upon  the  English  side  of  the  history. 
The  picture  of  colonial  life  among  the  Virginia  cava- 
liers should  be  clear. 

New  York :  Peter  Stuyvesant  and  the  Dutch  rule. 
History  of  the  colony  under  royal  governors.  The 
relations  with  the  Indians  and  other  neighbors. 

Pennsylvania:  William  Penn,  Benjamin  Franklin 
The  Quakers  and  Germans  and  Scotch-Irish.  The 
people  and  the  governors.  Plans  for  the  larger 
union  of  the  colonies. 

Massachusetts:  Settlement  of  Plymouth  and  Bos- 
ton. Winthrop.  Growth  of  the  representative  sys- 
tem. The  Indian  wars.  Royal  governors,  charters, 
and  popular  assemblies.  The  religious  controversies 
and  persecutions. 


COURSE  OF  STUDY   IN   HISTORY  261 

THE    EUROPEAN    WARS   AS    RELATED   TO    AMERICA 

The  last  French  and  Indian  War.  Braddock's 
expedition.  The  last  great  struggle  between  the 
English  and  the  French.  Pitt  in  England.  Mont- 
calm  and  Wolfe.  Pontiac's  conspiracy.  Condition 
of  affairs  at  the  close  of  the  struggle.  Character 
of  French  and  English  and  their  relations  to  the 
Indians. 

RELATED    READING    AND    LITERATURE   (AMERICAN) 

Miles  Standish  (Longfellow);  Grandfather's  Chair 
(Hawthorne);  The  Gentle  Boy  (Hawthorne);  Giles 
Corey  (Longfellow) ;  Mabel  Martin  (Whittier)  ;  Snow- 
Bound,  Among  the  Hills  (Whittier);  Tales  of  the 
White  Hills  (Hawthorne);  The  Sketch  Book  (Irv- 
ing); Source  Book  of  American  History  (Hart); 
Biographical  Stories  (Hawthorne);  Our  Country  in 
Prose  and  Verse;  Pilgrims  and  Puritans  (Moore); 
Conquest  of  the  Old  Northwest  (Baldwin);  The 
Building  of  the  Ship  (Longfellow);  Autobiography 
of  Franklin ;  Seven  American  Classics ;  The  Con- 
quest of  Mexico  (Prescott);  Children's  Stories  of 
American  Literature  (Wright). 

READINGS    FROM   ENGLISH    LITERATURE 

The  Coming  of  Arthur  and  the  Passing  of  Arthur 
(Tennyson);  Lay  of  the  Last  Minstrel  (Scott); 
Choice  English  Lyrics ;  Child's  History  of  England 
(Dickens);  Tales  from  Shakespeare  (Lamb);  Stories 


262  SPECIAL   METHOD   IN   HISTORY 

from  Waverley  (Scott);  Stories  from  Old  English 
Poetry  (Richardson);  Stories  from  English  History 
(Church),  2  vols. ;  English  Historical  Tales  (Morris); 
Source  Book  of  English  History  (Kendall);  History 
of  England  (Macaulay) —  Introduction. 

EUROPEAN    READINGS 

Ten    Great    Events  —  partly    English ;    Froissart 
(Lanier's);   William   Tell  (Schiller);   Iliad  (Bryant) 
—  poetic  translation ;  Don  Quixote  —  a  simple  adap- 
tation. 

SEVENTH  GRADE 
THE  REFORMATION  IN  GERMANY  AND  EUROPE 

Leo  X,  Luther,  Charles  V,  Henry  VIII,  Loyola, 
Gustavus  Adolphus.  Contest  of  Protestants  and 
Catholics. 

THE    PURITAN   REVOLUTION    IN   ENGLAND 

Charles  I  and  Parliament;  Straff ord.  Hampden, 
Pym,  Cromwell,  Milton.  William  of  Orange  and 
the  Protestant  succession.  Wesley  and  the  Non- 
conformists. 

LOUIS   XIV   AND   THE    FRENCH   MONARCHY 

French  royalty  and  aristocracy.  The  tyranny  of 
the  upper  classes  over  the  poor.  Lafayette,  his 
early  life  and  connection  with  America. 

In  the  previous  grades  the  character  of  the  French 
has  been  studied  in  a  much  simpler  form  in  Canada. 


COURSE  OF  STUDY   IN   HISTORY  263 

Their  customs,  religion,  and  warlike  qualities  were 
seen  in  La  Salle,  Frontenac,  Champlain,  Marquette, 
the  Jesuits,  and  others.  The  stories  of  Champlain, 
La  Salle,  and  the  French  wars  have  dealt  also  with 
the  schemes  of  the  French  government  and  with  the 
French  monarchs  and  statesmen. 

AMERICAN   HISTORY 

Causes  of  the  Revolution.  Trace  back  the  causes 
in  the  history  of  the  colonies  and  of  England.  The 
life  of  Samuel  Adams  as  a  Puritan  leader.  Opening 
events  of  the  war  about  Boston.  The  capture  of 
New  York  and  the  battles  near  New  York.  Wash- 
ington's retreat  through  New  Jersey.  Burgoyne's 
invasion  and  its  results.  Valley  Forge  and  the 
sufferings  of  the  army.  Sea-fights  —  Paul  Jones  and 
others.  War  in  the  South  —  Charleston,  Savannah. 
Cornwallis's  campaigns  and  surrender  at  Yorktown. 
Life  of  Washington,  Franklin,  Paul  Jones,  John 
Adams,  Morris.  The  state  of  money  matters  at 
the  close  of  the  war.  The  growing  hostility  between 
the  states.  Congress  and  its  power  under  the  Articles 
of  Confederation.  The  Philadelphia  Convention  :  its 
struggles  and  leading  men.  The  Constitution  before 
the  people ;  ratification.  The  life  of  James  Madison 
in  connection  with  the  Constitution. 

The  great  biographies  should  be  very  prominent, 
as  Life  of  Washington  (Scudder)  and  Samuel  Adams 
(Hosmer). 


264  SPECIAL  METHOD  IN   HISTORY 

RELATED    READING    AND    LITERATURE 

Evangeline  (Longfellow) — French  life  and  earlier 
history  ;  Poems  of  Emerson  ("  Lexington,"  "Boston," 
and  other  poems);  Webster's  Bunker  Hill,  and 
Adams  and  Jefferson  —  strongly  historical;  Grand- 
mother's Story  of  Bunker  Hill  (Holmes);  Camps 
and  Firesides  of  the  Revolution ;  Boys  of  '76  (Coffin) 
—  good  home  reading,  illustrated ;  American  War 
Ballads  and  Lyrics — the  earlier  parts;  Paul  Revere's 
Ride  (Longfellow);  From  Colony  to  Commonwealth 
(Moore);  Life  of  Washington  (Scudder)  —  the  best 
for  children;  Source  Book  of  American  History 
(Hart) — Revolution  and  Confederation;  Washing- 
ton's Rules  of  Conduct,  and  other  papers ;  Poor 
Richard's  Almanac  (Franklin) ;  Speech  on  the 
Landing  of  the  Pilgrims  (Webster);  Last  of  the 
Mohicans  (Cooper) ;  Stories  of  American  Literature 
(Wright) ;  biographies :  Twelve  Naval  Captains 
(Sewell),  first  part;  Washington  and  His  Country 
(Fiske-Irving);  Life  of  Samuel  de  Champlain  (Sedg- 
wick);  Life  of  John  Paul  Jones  (Hapgood);  Life  of 
Benjamin  Franklin  (Moore). 

RELATED    ENGLISH    LITERATURE 

Some  of  these  books,  like  those  in  the  previous 
list  of  American  books,  may  be  used  in  the  regular 
reading  work. 

History  of  England  (Macaulay)  —  the  part  on  the 
Puritan  revolution ;  Tom  Brown's  School  Days 


COURSE  OF  STUDY   IN   HISTORY  265 

(Hughes) — English    school    life;    Christmas    Carol 
(Dickens);   Tales  of  a  Grandfather  (Scott)— Wal- 
lace and  Bruce;  Shakespeare's  Tragedies  (Lamb)  — 
Historical    plays ;    Vicar   of    Wakefield   (Goldsmith) 
—  English  life;  Cotter's  Saturday  Night  (Burns)  — 
Scottish  home  life ;  Source  Book  of  English  History 
(Kendall);  Story  of  the  English  (Guerber)  —  use  the 
parts  needed. 

OTHER   LITERATURE   OF    EUROPE 

The  Two  Great  Retreats  (Grote)  —  retreat  of  the 
ten  thousand;  Merchant  of  Venice  (Shakespeare)  — 
Italy  ;  Plutarch's  Lives — Greek  and  Roman  leaders  ; 
Life  of  Peter  the  Great  (Motley)  —  interesting  and 
clear;  Natural  History  of  Selbourne  (White);  Sto- 
ries from  the  Classic  Literature  of  Many  Nations 
(Palmer);  Stories  of  the  Alhambra  (Irving) — Spain 
and  the  Moors;  The  Letters  of  Chesterfield  to  his 
Son.  William  TelL 

EIGHTH  GRADE 

EUROPEAN   HISTORY 

Julius  Caesar  and  Augustus.  The  Roman  Empire. 
The  great  period  of  Rome. 

The  French  Revolution  and  Napoleon.  Compari- 
son with  the  American  Revolution. 

England's  conquest  of  India.     Clive  and  Hastings. 

The  English  in  Africa.  Livingstone  and  Stanley. 
The  struggle  for  Africa  in  recent  years. 


266  SPECIAL  METHOD   IN   HISTORY 

Revolt  of  the  Spanish-American  provinces. 

The  Greek  war  of  independence.  Turkey.  Decay 
of  Turkish  power. 

The  union  of  the  north  German  states.  Bismarck 
and  King  William. 

The  union  of  Italian  states.  Cavour  and  Victor 
Emanuel. 

Queen  Victoria's  reign.  Bright,  Gladstone.  The 
English  empire  at  present 

AMERICAN    HISTORY   UNDER   THE   CONSTITUTION 

Hamilton  and  the  finances;  the  banking  system. 
Early  division  into  parties ;  origin  and  growth  of 
parties.  Growth  in  territory,  illustrated  by  simple 
maps.  War  of  1812;  the  right  of  impressment. 
Internal  improvements ;  commercial  routes  westward. 
Immigration  —  its  character  and  effects.  Jackson 
and  the  spoils  system.  Inventions — their  influence 
upon  the  progress  of  the  country.  Growth  of  slav- 
ery; the  chief  steps  in  its  development.  The 
Mexican  War  —  its  motives  and  results.  Discovery 
of  gold  in  California;  continental  railroads.  The 
doctrine  of  state  rights;  southern  leaders.  Plan 
of  the  Civil  War;  a  few  chief  campaigns.  Our 
system  of  revenue ;  the  national  debt.  The  three 
departments  of  government ;  a  system  of  checks. 
Civil-service  reform ;  review  of  the  spoils  system. 

Biographies :     Hamilton,    John    Quincy    Adams, 


COURSE  OF  STUDY   IN  HISTORY  26? 

Daniel  Webster,  Lincoln,  Horace  Greeley,  Whittier, 
Garrison,  Whitney,  Morse,  Peter  Cooper. 

REGULAR    READING    LESSONS   AND    AMERICAN    LITERA- 
TURE 

Masterpieces  of  American  Literature  (Scudder); 
Nature  Pictures  by  American  Poets;  Speech  on 
Washington  (Webster) ;  Washington's  Farewell  Ad- 
dress ;  Tales  of  a  Wayside  Inn  (Longfellow);  Poems 
of  American  Patriotism  ;  Hymns  and  Patriotic  Songs ; 
Fortune  of  the  Republic  and  American  Scholar 
(Emerson);  Schurz's  Abraham  Lincoln  and  other 
selected  pieces;  Lincoln's  Inaugurals,  and  other 
speeches.  My  Hunt  after  the  Captain  (Holmes); 
Biglow  Papers  —  selections  (Lowell);  Uncle  Tom's 
Cabin  (Stowe) ;  Speech  in  Reply  to  Hayne,  or,  The 
Great  Debate  (Webster) ;  Burke  on  Conciliation  with 
the  American  Colonies;  Oregon  Trail  (Parkman) — 
pictures  of  western  life;  Source  Book  of  American 
History  (Hart)  —  latter  part;  The  House  of  Seven 
Gables  (Hawthorne);  Story  of  the  Great  Republic 
(Guerber)  —  latter  part ;  American  Writers  of  To-day 
(Vedder);  The  Pilot  (Cooper);  Twelve  Naval  Cap- 
tains (Sewell).  Great  Words  of  Great  Americans. 

READINGS    FROM   ENGLISH    LITERATURE 

Masterpieces  of  English  Literature :  Roger  de 
Coverley  (Addison)  —  English  pictures;  Lady  of  the 
Lake  and  Marmion  (Scott);  The  Deserted  Village 


268  SPECIAL  METHOD   IN   HISTORY 

and  Traveller  (Goldsmith);  Ivanhoe,  The  Abbot,  and 
Rob  Roy  (Scott) ;  Essay  on  Samuel  Johnson  (Macau- 
lay);  Source  Book  of  English  History  (Kendall); 
Tale  of  Two  Cities  (Dickens).  Seven  British 
Classics. 

OTHER   EUROPEAN    LITERATURE 

Julius  Caesar  (Shakespeare)  —  closely  related  to 
the  history;  Peasant  and  Prince  (Martineau);  The 
Judgment  of  Socrates  (Plato) ;  Story  of  the  Romans 
(Guerber)  —  latter  parts  ;  The  Boy's  Browning  — 
"  Pied  Piper  "  and  other  poems  ;  Plutarch's  Lives  — 
historical  biographies ;  Don  Quixote  (Cervantes) ; 
Two  Great  Retreats  —  retreat  of  Napoleon  from 
Moscow;  The  Talisman  and  Quentin  Durward 
(Scott) ;  Jean  Valjean ;  Motley's  Peter  the  Great  and 
The  Siege  of  Leyden. 


CHAPTER  IX 

LIST    OF    BOOKS 

OUT  of  the  great  number  of  books  on  American 
and  European  history,  it  is  needful  that  a  careful 
selection  be  made  of  a  few  most  suitable  for  use  in 
the  grades. 

In  pursuance  of  the  plan  and  course  of  study  laid 
out  in  the  preceding  chapters,  a  few  select  books  have 
been  chosen  for  each  grade. 

In  each  grade  three  groups  of  books  are  given. 

1.  Those   books  which  may  serve  as  a  text-book 
basis  for  more  careful  study.     In  fourth  and  fifth 
grades  the  first  list  contains  the  stories  to  be  treated 
orally  by  the  teacher. 

2.  A   list  of  supplementary  reading  and   source 
material,  biography  and  story,  which  children  may  be 
encouraged  to  use  at  school  and   home.     This  will 
open  up  the  library  to  children,  and  teach  them  how 
to  make  use  of  books,  sources,  etc. 

3.  A   list  of   a   few   important   books   for  teach- 
ers, including  some  of  the  secondary  histories,  the 
stronger  biographies  and  fuller  source  materials,  doc- 

269 


2/0  SPECIAL   METHOD   IN   HISTORY 

uments,  etc.  Such  a  book  as  Channing  and  Hart's 
Guide  to  the  Study  of  American  History  is  of  great 
value  to  teachers  in  directing  their  reading  and  study. 

Several  books  of  this  character,  with  good,  brief 
bibliographies,  and  a  few  books  on  the  pedagogics 
of  history  are  included. 

The  large,  complete  histories,  such  as  Schouler's 
McMaster's,  Bancroft's,  and  others,  are  named  at 
the  end  of  the  list. 

The  entire  list  of  books  is  designed  to  be  definite 
for  each  grade,  and  to  strike  the  middle  line  between 
too  much  and  too  little. 


LIST  OF   BOOKS 

FOURTH  AND  FIFTH  GRADES 

I.  Books  of  American  pioneer  stories  and  a  few  European 
stories  which  furnish  material  suitable  for  oral  treatment  by  the 
teacher.  A  few  books  of  select  poems  and  sources  will  also  be 
of  service  to  teachers. 

Pioneers  on  Land  and  Sea.     (McMurry.)     The  Macmillan  Co. 

This  contains  the  stories  of  Hudson,  Champlain,  John  Smith, 
Raleigh,  early  life  of  Washington,  Columbus,  Magellan,  Corte's, 
and  early  New  England. 

Pioneers  of  the  Mississippi  Valley.    (McMurry.)    The  Macmillan 

Co. 

This  has  the  stories  of  La  Salle,  Joliet  and  Marquette,  Henne- 
pin,  Boone,  Robertson,  Sevier,  George  Rogers  Clark,  Lincoln, 
and  De  Soto. 

Pioneers  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  and  the  West.  (McMurry.) 
The  Macmillan  Co. 

The  stories  of  Lewis  and  Clark,  Fremont's  two  expeditions, 
Parkman  among  the  Indians,  the  Sioux  massacre,  the  trip  to 
California  in  '49,  and  Powell's  descent  of  the  Colorado. 

The  three  books  above  named  contain  stories  for  use  in  both 
fourth  and  fifth  grades.  The  order  in  which  they  are  used  de- 
pends upon  the  location  of  the  home,  in  the  East  or  West.  It  is 
recommended  that  the  ocean  pioneers,  Columbus,  Magellan,  etc., 
be  taken  in  the  latter  part  of  the  fifth  grade. 

Pilgrims  and  Puritans.     (Moore.)     Ginn  &  Co. 

The  best  account  for  our  purpose  of  the  early  settlement  of 
Plymouth  and  Boston.  This  reaches  also  into  colonial  history. 

271 


272  SPECIAL  METHOD   IN   HISTORY 

Heroes  of  the  Middle  West.     (Catherwood.)     Ginn  &  Co. 

Excellent  stories  of  the  early  French  explorers  along  the  Lakes 
and  the  Mississippi. 

The  Discovery  of  the  Old  Northwest.     (Baldwin.)     American 

Book  Co. 
Good  stories  of  the  French  explorers. 

The  Conquest  of  the  Old  Northwest.     (Baldwin.)     American 

Book  Co. 
Stories  of  the  contest  for  the  Ohio  Valley  and  the  Northwest. 

A  Book  of  American   Explorers.      (Higginson.)      Longmans, 

Green  &  Co. 

These  are  instructive  stories  of  the  early  explorers  and  settlers 
in  America,  containing  much  source  material. 

Our  Country  in  Poem  and  Prose.     (Persons.)     American  Book 

Co. 
Excellent  selections. 

Samuel  de  Champlain.    (Sedgwick.)     Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Co. 

One  hundred  and  twenty-six  pages.  A  good,  brief  account  of 
Champlain's  life. 

George  Rogers  Clark.     (Turner.)     Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Co. 
A  lively  narrative  of  Clark's  exploits. 

Lewis  and  Clark.     (Lighton.)     Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Co. 

The  three  above-mentioned  books  are  good,  brief  biographies 
of  value  and  interest  to  teachers  as  giving  a  fuller  and  more  com- 
prehensive treatment  than  the  previous  stories. 

Source  Book  of  American  History.    (Hart.)    The  Macmillan  Co. 
The  earlier  parts  on  explorations  and  early  settlement. 

Children's  Life  of  Abraham  Lincoln.    (Putnam.)    A.  C.  McClurg 
&Co. 

Stories  from  English  History.     (Church.)     The  Macmillan  Co. 
Earlier  and  later  tales  of  England. 

History  of  England.     (Cooke.)     D.  Appleton  &  Co. 


LIST  OF  BOOKS  273 

England's  Story.     (Tappan.)     Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Co. 
Instructive  and  well  illustrated. 

Four  American  Explorers.     (Kingsley.)     Werner  School  Book 
Co. 

How  our  Grandfathers  Lived.     Source  Reader.     (Hart.)     The 
Macmillan  Co. 

Old  South  Leaflets.     Sources.     D.  C.  Heath  &  Co. 
American  History  Leaflets.     (Hart  and  Channing.)     Lovell. 

Stories  from  the  Bible.     (Church.)     The  Macmillan  Co. 
First  Series.     The  early  Bible  stories  in  good  form. 

Source  Book  of  English  History.     (Kendall.)     The  Macmillan 

Co. 
A  few  selections  from  the  first  part. 

2.   Books  of  simple,  historical  narrative  which  may  be  read  by 
children  in  the  fourth  or  fifth  grades. 

Stories  of  American  Life  and  Adventure.     (Eggleston.)     Ameri- 
can Book  Co. 
Simple  and  interesting  stories. 

Stories  of  Colonial  Children.     (Pratt.)     Educational  Publishing 

Co. 
Very  simple  stories  of  early  Massachusetts. 

Colonial  Life  in  New  Hampshire.     (Fassett.)     Ginn  &  Co. 
An  interesting  description  of  early  pioneer  struggles. 

Colonial  Children.     (Hart.)     The  Macmillan  Co. 
Very  simple  source  reader  in  early  American  history. 

Pioneers  of  the  Revolution.     Public  School  Publishing  Co. 
Simple  stories  of  Boone,  and  others. 

Stories  of  the  Badger  State.     (Thwaites.)     American  Book  Co. 
Stories  of  Maine.     (Swett.)     American  Book  Co. 

A  First  Book  in  American  History.     (Eggleston.)     American 
Book  Co. 

T 


274  SPECIAL  METHOD   IN   HISTORY 

Wigwam  Stories.     (Judd.)     Ginn  &  Co. 
Primitive  Indian  legends  and  customs. 

American  Indians.     (Starr.)     D.  C.  Heath  &  Co. 
One  of  the  best  books  on  Indian  life. 

Stories  of  our  Country.     (Johonnot.)    American  Book  Co. 
Children's  Stories  of  American  Progress.    (Wright.)    Scribner's. 
Four  Great  Americans.     (Baldwin.)     Werner  School  Book  Co. 
Stories  of  Ohio      (Howells.)     American  Book  Co. 
Stories  of  Georgia.     (Harris.)     American  Book  Co. 

American  Leaders  and  Heroes.     (Gordy.)     Scribner's. 
Instructive,  entertaining,  and  well  illustrated. 

Explorers  and  Travelers.     (Greely.)     Scribner's. 

The  Young  Puritans  of  Old  Hadley.     (Smith.)     Roberts  Bros. 

Four  True    Stories  of    Life  and   Adventure.      (Smith.)      W. 
Beverly  Harrison. 

Hero  Tales  of  American  History.    (Roosevelt  and  Lodge.)    The 
Century  Co. 

A  Primary  History  of  the  United  States.    (McMaster.)    American 
Book  Co.     Illustrated. 

Pacific  History  Stories.     Tales  of  discovery  of  the  Pacific  slope. 
Ainsworth  &  Co. 

First  Steps  in  the  History  of  Our  Country.     (Mowry.)     Silver, 
Burdett  &  Co. 

The  Boys  of  Greenway  Court.     (Butterworth.)     D.  Appleton  & 
Co. 

Short  Stories  from  English  History.     (Blaisdell.)     Ginn  &  Co. 
Easy  narrative. 

Stories  of  the  Olden  Time.     (Johonnot.)     American  Book  Co. 
Myths,  legends,  and  historical  tales.     Somewhat  difficult. 


LIST  OF  BOOKS  275 

Fifty  Famous  Stories  Retold.     (Baldwin.)     American  Book  Co. 
The  City  of  the  Seven  Hills.    (Harding.)    Silver,  Burdett  &  Co. 

The  Story  of  the  Romans.     (Guerber.)     American  Book  Co. 
Somewhat  difficult  in  language. 

Stories  of  Old  France.     (Pitman.)     American  Book  Co. 
Old  Stories  of  the  East.     (Baldwin.)     American  Book  Co. 
Grandfather's  Chair.     (Hawthorne.)     Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Co. 

3.    Valuable  references  for  teachers,  including  some  of  the  abler 
and  fuller  historical  works. 

The   Discovery  of  America.      2   Vols.      (Fiske.)      Houghton, 
Mifflin  &  Co. 

The  Beginnings  of  New  England.     (Fiske.)     Houghton,  Mifflin 
&Co. 

Old  Virginia  and  her  Neighbors.     (Fiske.)     Houghton,  Mifflin 
&Co. 

The  Dutch  and  Quaker  Colonies  in  America.    (Fiske.)    Hough- 
ton,  Mifflin  &  Co. 
Very  interesting  and  instructive  books  for  teachers. 

Pioneers  of  France  in  the  New  World.     (Parkman.) 

La  Salle  and  the  Discovery  of  the  Great  West.     (Parkman.) 

These  books,  published  by  Little,  Brown  &  Co.,  are  the  best 
teachers1  books  of  early  American  history. 

The  California  and  Oregon  Trail.     (Parkman.)     Little,  Brown 
&Co. 

American   History  told  by  Contemporaries.     (Hart.)     Vol.  I. 

The  Macmillan  Co. 

A  very  choice  collection  of  source  materials,  well-arranged  and 
easy  of  use. 

Boys'  Heroes.     (Hale.)    Lothrop. 

Historical  Tales,  French.     (Morris.)     J.  B.  Lippincott. 


376  SPECIAL  METHOD  IN   HISTORY 

The  Winning  of  the  West.    (Roosevelt.)     Putnam. 

The  best  material  for  the  early  history  of  the  Ohio  Valley. 

A  Short  History  of  the  Mississippi  Valley.     (Hosmer.)     Hough- 
ton,  Mifflin  &  Co. 
Excellent,  but  somewhat  brief. 

Life    of    Christopher    Columbus.       (Lamartine.)       Hough  ton, 
Mifflin  &  Co. 

The  Conquest  of  Mexico.     (Prescott.)     Maynard,  Merrill  &  Co. 
An  abridgment. 

The  Making  of  New  England.     (Drake.)     Scribner's. 

The  Making  of  the  Ohio  Valley  States.     (Drake.)     Scribner's. 

The  Making  of  the  Great  West.     (Drake.)     Scribner's. 

These  books  are  excellent  narratives  of  early  conditions.    Well 
illustrated. 

Larger  History.     (Higginson.)     Harper  Brothers. 

Sir  Francis  Drake.     (Winsor.)     Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Co, 

Sir  Walter  Raleigh.     (Edwards.) 

Columbus.     (Adams.)     Dodd,  Mead  &  Co. 

An  Historical  Geography  of  the  United  States.     (MacCoun.) 

Silver,  Burdett  &  Co. 
Simple  maps  with  historical  notes  and  explanations. 

Westward  Ho!     (Kingsley.)     The  Macmillan  Co. 
History  of  England.     (Buckley.)    The  Macmillan  Co. 
Alfred  the  Great.     (Hughes.)     The  Macmillan  Co. 

The  Story  of  the  Christians  and  Moors  of  Spain.     (Yonge.) 
The  Macmillan  Co. 

Stories    of   Croesus,    Cyrus,    and    Babylon,    from    Herodotus. 
(Church.)     Maynard,  Merrill  &  Co. 


LIST  OF  BOOKS  277 

Ten  Boys  on  the  Road  from  Long  Ago.     (Andrews.)     Ginn  & 
Co. 

A  Short  History  of  Medieval  Europe.    (Thatcher.)    Scribner's. 

The  Story  of  Tonty.     (Catherwood.)     A.  C.  McClurg. 

Alice  of  Old  Vincennes.     (Thompson.)     The  Bowen-Merrill  Co. 

Students'   History  of   the   United   States.      (Channing.)      The 

Macmillan  Co. 
An  excellent  guide  for  teachers.    Good  reference  lists. 

Guide  to  the  Study  of  American  History.    (Channing  and  Hart.) 

Ginn  &  Co. 
A  most  complete  and  satisfactory  book  for  teachers. 

The  Teaching  of  History  and  Civics.     (Bourne.)     Longmans, 

Green  &  Co. 
A  complete  pedagogical  treatise  on  history. 

SIXTH   GRADE 

I.   Text-books  for  children's  use. 

A  special  children's  text-book  on  the  colonial  period  has  not 
been  prepared,  but  a  number  of  books  deal  somewhat  fully  with 
this  period.     A  few  of  these  are  named,  as  follows :  — 
History  of  the  United  States.    (Fiske.)    Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Co. 

One  hundred  and  eighty  pages  devoted  to  the  period  before  the 
Revolution.  The  language  may  be  somewhat  difficult  for 
children.  This  book  may  serve  well  as  an  outline,  which  can 
be  filled  in  by  teacher  and  children  from  other  sources. 

Several  of  the  primary  histories  have  simple,  mostly  biographi- 
cal narratives  of  this  early  period,  as  a  History  of  the  United 
States  (Gordy),  Scribner's,  the  New  Era  History,  published  by 
Eaton  &  Co.,  Story  of  the  Great  Republic  (Guerber),  American 
Book  Co.,  Our  Country's  Story  (Tappan),  Houghton,  Mifflin  & 
Co.,  and  a  Short  History  of  the  United  States  (Scudder),  Sheldon 
&  Co.  They  are  usually  well  illustrated  with  maps  and  quaint 
pictures. 


2/8  SPECIAL  METHOD   IN    HISTORY 

A  good  book  for  use  in  connection  with  one  of  the  above,  used 
as  a  text,  is  Higginson's  A  Larger  History  of  the  United  States 
of  America  to  the  Close  of  Jackson's  Administration,  Chapters 
I  to  VIII.  Well  illustrated. 

Colonial  Children.     (Hart.)     Source  Readers  in  American  His- 
tory, No.  I.     The  Macmillan  Co. 
Excellent.     The  very  best  select  material  for  children. 

The  story  of  the  Persian  wars  in  Greece  and  of  the  Punic  wars 
between  Rome  and  Carthage  are  well  told  in  a  number  of  the 
histories  for  young  people  ;  for  example  :  The  Story  of  the  Greeks 
(Guerber),  and  The  Story  of  the  Romans  (Guerber),  American 
Book  Co. ;  The  City  of  the  Seven  Hills  (Harding),  Scott,  Fores- 
man  &  Co. ;  History  of  Rome  for  Beginners  (Shuckburgh),  The 
Macmillan  Co. ;  Greeks  and  Persians  (Cox),  Scribner's ;  Rome 
and  Carthage  (Smith),  Scribner's. 

2.   Books  of  reference  on  colonial  history  for  children. 
Pilgrims  and  Puritans.     (Moore.)     Ginn  &  Co. 
From  Colony  to  Commonwealth.     (Moore.)     Ginn  &  Co. 

Source  Book  of  American  History.     (Hart.)    The  Macmillan  Co. 
Chapters  I  to  VIII.     Well  adapted  for  the  use  of  children. 

The  Making  of  New  England.     (Drake.)     Scribner's. 

The  Making  of  Virginia  and  the  Middle  Colonies.     (Drake.) 
Scribner's. 

The  Making  of  the  Great  West.     (Drake.)     Scribner's. 
These  three  volumes  supply  good  supplementary  reading. 

The  Border  Wars  of  New  England.     (Drake.)     Scribner's. 

Life  of  George  Washington.     (Scudder.)     Houghton,  Mifflin  & 

Co. 

Chapters  I  to  XII  give  the  best  account  for  children  of  Wash- 
ington's life  up  to  the  Revolution. 

Grandfather's  Chair.     (Hawthorne.)     Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Co. 
The  best  stories  of  colonial  life  in  Hawthorne's  interesting  style. 


LIST  OF  BOOKS  279 

Colonial  Days  in  Old  New  York.     (Earle.)     Scribner's. 
Fine  description  of  Dutch  life  and  customs. 

Colonial  Days  and  Ways.     (H.  E.  Smith.)     The  Century  Co. 

The  Gentle  Boy  and  Other  Tales.     (Hawthorne.)     Houghton 
Mifflin  &  Co. 

Colonial  Pioneers.     (Parton.)     Maynard,  Merrill  &  Co. 

History  of  Plymouth  Plantation.     (Bradford.)     Maynard,  Mer- 
rill &  Co. 

Colonial  Massachusetts.     (Dawes.)     Silver,  Burdett  &  Co. 
Good  stories.    Well  illustrated. 

Roger  Williams.     (Straus.)     The  Century  Co. 

Child  Life  in  Colonial  Days.     (Earle.)     Illustrated.    The  Mao 
millan  Co. 

Stories  of  the  Old  Bay  State.     (Brooks.)     American  Book  Co. 
American  History  Stories.     (Dodge.)     Lee  &  Shepard. 
Historic  Boston.     (Hale.)     D.  Appleton  &  Co. 

The  Autobiography  of  Franklin.     The  Macmillan  Co.,  American 

Book  Co.,  Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Co.,  Ginn  &  Co. 
Parts  of  this  interesting  narrative  of  colonial  life  can  be  selected 
by  the  teacher  for  reference  reading,  or  class  use. 

Benjamin  Franklin.     (More.)     Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Co. 
A  short,  interesting  biography  of  Franklin. 

William  Penn.     (Hodges.)     Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Co. 
This  supplies  some  excellent  descriptions  of  Penn's  work. 

Colonial  Life  in  New  Hampshire.     (Fassett.)     Ginn  &  Co. 
American  Indians.     (Starr.)     D.  C.  Heath  &  Co. 

The  Conquest  of  the  Northwest.    (Baldwin.)    American  Book  Co. 
Clear  and  well  narrated. 

Historical  Geography  of  the  United  States.     (MacCoun.) 
A  small  book  with  good  series  of  historical  maps,  notes,  etc. 


280  SPECIAL  METHOD   IN   HISTORY 

Biographical  Stories.     (Hawthorne.)     Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Co. 

The  Courtship  of  Miles  Standish.     (Longfellow.)     Houghton, 
Mifflin  &  Co. 

Westward  Ho  !     (Kingsley.)     The  Macmillan  Co. 

The  Conquest  of  Mexico.     (Prescott.)     Maynard,  Merrill  &  Co. 
Abridged. 

Ten  Great  Events  in  History.    (Johonnot.)    American  Book  Co. 
Tales  from  Scottish  History.     (Rolfe.)     American  Book  Co. 
Tales  from  English  History.     (Rolfe.)     American  Book  Co. 

Ten  Boys  on  the  Road  from  Long  Ago.     (Andrews.)     Ginn  & 
Co. 

3.   Important  reference  books  for  teachers. 

The  Colonies.     1492-1750.     (Thwaites.)     Longmans,  Green  & 
Co. 

Home  Life  in  Colonial  Days.     (Earle.)     Illustrated.    The  Mac- 
millan Co. 

An  excellent  treatment  of  this  period  with  descriptive  list  of 
best  books  for  the  teacher's  use. 

Customs  and  Fashions  of  Old  New  England.     (Earle.)     Scrib- 
ner's. 

Half  Hours  with  American  History.     Vol.  I.    J.  B.  Lippincott. 

Colonial  America.     J.  B.  Lippincott. 
Excellent  material  on  special  topics. 

A  Student's  History  of  the  United  States.     (Channing.)    The 

Macmillan  Co. 

A  book  designed  for  high  schools,  but  of  the  greatest  value  to 
teachers.  A  somewhat  full  treatment  of  the  colonial  period, 
pp.  1-150.  Excellent  maps  and  book  references. 

Guide  to  the  Study  of  American  History.    (Channing  and  Hart.) 
Ginn  &  Co. 


LIST  OF  BOOKS  28 1 

American  History  told  by  Contemporaries.     Vols.  I  and  II. 

Full  and  well-selected  source  material  for  the  colonial  period. 
Excellent  books  for  the  school  library. 

The  Beginnings  of  New  England.     (Fiske.) 

Old  Virginia  and  her  Neighbors.     (Fiske.)     2  Vols. 

The  Dutch  and  Quaker  Colonies  in  America.     (Fiske.)     2  Vols. 
All  published  by  Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Co.    These  five  volumes 
have  great  interest  and  value. 

The  Making  of  New  England.     (Drake.)     Scribner's. 
Very  instructive  on  colonial  life. 

Virginia  and  the  Middle  Colonies.     (Drake.)     Scribner'i. 
Excellent  detail. 

Pioneers  of  New  France.     (Parkman.) 
Montcalm  and  Wolfe.     (Parkman.) 

Conspiracy  of  Pontiac.     (Parkman.) 
All  published  by  Little,  Brown  &  Co. 

Costumes  of  Colonial  Times.     (Earle.)     Scribner'a, 
Miles  Standish.     (Abbott.)     Dodd,  Mead  &  Co. 

Colonial  Era.     (Fisher.)     Scribner's. 

This  is  the  most  complete  treatment  of  the  colonial  period  in  a 
single  volume. 

English  Colonies.     (Lodge.)     Harper  Brothers. 

American  History  Leaflets.    (Hart  and  Channing.)    Lovell  &  Co. 

Old  South  Leaflets.    D.  C.  Heath  &  Co. 

European  Colonies.     (Payne.)     The  Macmillan  Co. 

The  Seats  of  the  Mighty.     (Parker.)    D.  Appleton  &  Co. 
An  historical  novel.     Story  of  Quebec. 

Side   Glimpses    from    the    Colonial    Meeting-house.      (Bliu.) 
Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Co. 


282  SPECIAL  METHOD   IN   HISTORY 

A  Short  History  of  the  Mississippi  Valley.     (Hosmer.)     Hough- 
ton,  Mifflin  &  Co. 

Short  History  of  the  English  People.    (Green.)    The  Macmillan 
Co. 

Life  of  Hannibal.     (Arnold.)     Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Co. 
Stories  from  English  History.     (Church.)     The  Macmillan  Co. 
Method  in  History.     (Mace.)     Ginn  &  Co. 

How  to  study  and  teach  History.     (Hinsdale.)     D.  Appleton 
&Co. 

SEVENTH   GRADE 
I.   Books  for  careful  reading  and  study  by  the  children. 

History  of  the  United  States.     (Fiske.)     Houghton,  Mifflin  & 

Co. 

This  furnishes  merely  a  good  outline  to  be  filled  in  from  fuller 
sources.  Condensed  and  somewhat  difficult.  Any  one  of  several 
other  text-books  will  serve  as  well  as  Fiske's. 

The  War  of  Independence.     (Fiske.)     Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Co. 
A  full  and  interesting  account  of  the  causes  leading  up  to  the 
war,  and  of  the  chief  campaigns.     This  book  can  receive  a  careful 
study. 

Washington  and  his  Country.     (Fiske-Irving.)     Ginn  &  Co. 

This  book  furnishes  excellent  collateral  reading  and  study  of 
special  topics.  It  is  largely  biographical  and  interesting. 

Benjamin  Franklin.     (More.)     Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Co. 
Chapters  V  and  VI.     A  brief  account  of  Franklin  in  France. 

Source  Book  of  American  History.     (Hart.)    The  Macmillan  Co. 
Chapters  IX  and  X. 

Paul  Jones.     (Hapgood.)     Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Co. 
A  biography  of  the  chief  naval  hero  of  the  Revolution. 

Camps  and  Firesides  of  the  Revolution.     (Hart.)     The  Mac- 
millan Co. 
An  excellent  source  reader.     Simple. 


LIST  OF  BOOKS  283 

American  History  told  by  Contemporaries.     (Hart.)     Vol.  II. 

The  best  and  simplest  source  material.     This  book  should  be 
in  the  school  library  for  constant  reference.    Part  also  of  Vol.  III. 

England's  Story.     (Tappan.)     Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Co. 

This  contains,  for  reference,  a  good,  brief  account  of  the  Eng- 
lish Puritan  revolution,  as  well  as  an  outline  history  of  England. 

History  of  England.     (Macaulay.)     Maynard,  Merrill  &  Co. 
Chapter  I.     The  part  on  the  Puritan  revolution. 

2.    Further  books  of  reference  and  supplementary  reading  for 
children. 

The  Men  who  made  the  Nation.     (Sparks.)     The  Macmillan  Co. 
First  half  of  the  book.     Somewhat  difficult  in  language. 

Life  of  Washington.     (Scudder.)     Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Co. 
An  excellent  biography  for  children. 

Burgoyne's  Invasion.     (Drake.)     Lee  &  Shepard. 
An  interesting  monograph  on  this  expedition. 

Stories  of  Georgia.     (Harris.)     American  Book  Co. 

Grandfather's  Chair.     (Hawthorne.)     Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Co. 
Part  III.     Good  stories  in  Hawthorne's  fine  style. 

Poems  of  American  Patriotism.     Scribner's. 
The  earlier  selections  in  the  book. 

Boys  of '76.     (Coffin.)     Harper  Brothers.     Illustrated. 

Heroes  of  the  Revolution.     (Parton.)     Maynard,  Merrill  &  Co. 
An  interesting  pamphlet. 

Side  Lights  on  American  History.    (Elson.)    The  Macmillan  Co. 
Vol.  I.     An  excellent  treatment  of  special  topics. 

Our  Country  in  Poem  and  Prose.     (Persons.)     American  Book 

Co. 
Patriotic  and  choice  selections. 

The  Young  American.     (Judson.)     Maynard,  Merrill  &  Co. 


284  SPECIAL   METHOD  IN    HISTORY 

The  Century  Book  of  the  American   Revolution.      (Brooks.) 
The  Century  Co. 

Stories  of  Old  France.     (Pitman.)    American  Book  Co. 
An  introduction  to  French  history. 

Larger  History.     (Higginson.)     Harper  Brothers. 
A  complete  and  interesting  history  of  the  United  States  to  1837 

Alexander  Hamilton.     (Conant.)     Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Co. 
A  brief  biography,  simple  and  instructive. 

Stories  from  English  History.     (Church.)     The  Macmillan  Co. 
A  standard  book  of  children's  history  stories. 

The  Story  of  the  English.     (Guerber.)     American  Book  Co. 

Tales  of  a  Grandfather.     (Scott.)     Ginn  &  Co. 
Stories  of  Wallace,  Bruce,  Douglas,  etc. 

Bunker  Hill,  Adams,  and  Jefferson.     (Webster.)      Houghton, 

Mifflin  &  Co. 
Somewhat  difficult,  but  worth  the  effort  of  serious  study. 

Source  Book  of  English  History.    (Kendall.)    The  Macmillan  Co. 
Excellent  material. 

An  Historical  Geography.     (MacCoun.)      Silver,  Burdett  &  Co. 
3.   Choice  books  for  teachers'  use. 

Formation  of  the  Union.     (Hart.)     Longmans,  Green  &  Co 
Excellent,  with  choice  references. 

A  Student's  History  of  the  United  States.     (Channing.)     The 

Macmillan  Co- 
Guide  to  the  Study  of  American  History.     (Channing  and  Hart.) 

Ginn  &  Co. 
The  best  guide  for  teachers. 

The  French  War  and  the  Revolution.     (Sloane.)     Scribner's. 
A  full  treatment  of  this  period  in  one  volume. 

The  Growth  of  the  American  Nation.    (Judson.)     The  Mac- 
millan Co. 


LIST  OF  BOOKS  285 

An  excellent  survey  of  American  history  for  teachers.     Inter- 
esting. 

The  United  States  of  America.     (Channing.)     1765-1865.    The 

Macmillan  Co. 
A  somewhat  complete  historical  survey  of  this  period. 

The  Story  of  the  Revolution.     (Lodge.)     Scribner's. 
Two  large  volumes.     Finely  illustrated. 

Half  Hours  with  American  History.     Vol.  II.     J.  B.  Lippincott. 

The  Life  of  Samuel   Adams.     (Hosmer.)     Houghton,  Mifflin 

&Co. 
Most  excellent  as  introductory  to  the  Revolution. 

The  American  Revolution.     (Fiske.)     Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Co. 

2  Vols. 
Complete  and  valuable. 

The  Critical  Period  of  American  History.     (Fiske.)     Houghton, 

Mifflin  &  Co. 
Of  great  value,  and  remarkably  interesting. 

Burke's  Speech  on  Conciliation  with  America.     The  Macmillan 
Co.,  Ginn  &  Co.,  Silver,  Burdett  &  Co.,  Houghton,  Mifflin  & 
Co.,  American  Book  Co. 
A  great  piece  of  literature,  and  very  instructive. 

George  Washington.      (Lodge.)     2  Vols.     Statesmen  Series. 

Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Co. 
An  excellent  and  full  biography. 

American  History  Leaflets.    (Hart  and  Channing.)    Lovell  &  Co. 
Thirty  numbers.     Best  sources. 

Old  South  Leaflets.    D.  C.  Heath  &  Co. 
Excellent  source  material. 

Orations  on  Washington  and  Landing  of  the  Pilgrims.     (Web- 
ster.)    American  Book  Co. 

History  of  England.     (Buckley.)     The  Macmillan  Co. 


286  SPECIAL  METHOD   IN   HISTORY 

Life  of  Oliver  Cromwell.    (Lamartine.)    Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Co. 
One  small  volume. 

Life  of  Martin  Luther.     (Bunsen.)     Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Co. 
A  short  biography. 

The  Era  of  Protestant  Revolution.     (Seebohm.)     Scribner's. 

Europe  in  the  Sixteenth  Century.     (Johnson.)     Rivington. 
The  period  of  the  Reformation. 

Brave  Little  Holland.     (Griffis.)     Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Co. 

A  General  History  of  Europe.     (Thatcher  and  Schwill.)     Scrib- 
ner's. 

The  Puritan  Revolution.     (Gardner.)     Longmans,  Green  &  Co. 

Student's  History  of  England.     (Gardner.)     Longmans,  Green 
&Co. 

Short  History  of  the  English  People.    (Green.)    The  Macmillan 

Co.  J 

The  Teaching  of  History  and  Civics.     (Bourne.)     Longmans, 

Green  &  Co. 
Valuable  for  teachers. 

EIGHTH  GRADE 
I.   Books  for  children's  study. 

One  good  text-book  of  American  history,  such  as  History  of 
the  United  States.  (Fiske.)  Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Co.  This 
book  is  somewhat  difficult  in  parts,  and  needs  to  be  illustrated 
and  enlarged  from  source  material,  history  readers,  biographies, 
and  larger  histories  as  follows  :  — 

Formation  of  the  Union.     (Hart.)     Longmans,  Green  &  Co. 

Chapters  VII  to  XII.  A  clear  treatment  of  topics  up  to  1829. 
This  book  is  designed  for  older  students,  but  in  connection  with 
other  fuller  materials  may  serve  also  for  eighth-grade  pupils. 

Side   Lights   on  American   History.     (Elson.)     2  Vols.     The 

Macmillan  Co. 
These  two  volumes  furnish  an  excellent  supplement  to  the  text- 


LIST  OF  BOOKS  287 

book.  A  few  important  topics  are  handled  with  descriptive  ful- 
ness, so  as  to  furnish  clear  and  interesting  pictures.  The  second 
volume  deals  with  the  period  of  the  Civil  War  and  the  later  history. 

Alexander  Hamilton.     (Conant.)     Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Co. 

A  good,  brief  account  of  Hamilton's  part  in  making  and  launch- 
ing the  government. 

Abraham  Lincoln.     (Schurz.)     Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Co. 
A  brief,  masterly  essay  on  Lincoln's  life  and  character. 

Source  Book  of  American  History.  (Hart.)  The  Macmillan 
Co. 

Historical  Geography  of  the  United  States.  (MacCoun.)  Sil- 
ver, Burdett  &  Co. 

History  of  England  for  Beginners.     (Buckley.)     The  Macmillan 

Co. 
The  latter  part. 

The  History  of  Colonization.  (Morris.)  2  Vols.  The  Mac- 
millan Co. 

England's  Story.     (Tappan.)     Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Co. 

The  latter  part  of  the  book  is  a  good,  brief  statement  of  English 
and  European  history  in  the  last  hundred  years. 

The  Story  of  Caesar.     (Clarke.)     American  Book  Co. 

Stories  from  English  History.     (Church.)     The  Macmillan  Co. 

2.   Children's  supplementary  books  for  reading  and  reference. 

The  Growth  of  the  American  Nation.     (Judson.)      The  Mac- 
millan Co. 
An  interesting  and  vigorous  treatment  of  leading  topics. 

American  History  told  by  Contemporaries.  (Hart.)  The  Mac- 
millan Co. 

Vols.  Ill  and  IV.     An  excellent  collection  of  source  materials, 
well  arranged  for  easy  reference.    Very  valuable  for  school  library. 

Children's  Stories  of  American  Progress.    (Wright.)    Scribner's 
Very  simple  narratives  on  special  topics. 


288  SPECIAL  METHOD   IN   HISTORY 

Children's  Life  of  Lincoln.     (Putnam.)     A.  C.  McClurg. 
A  simple  story  of  Lincoln's  life. 

The  Making  of  the  Ohio  Valley  States.     (Drake.)     Scribner's. 

The  Men  who  made  the  Nation.     (Sparks.)    The  Macmillan  Co. 
The  second  half  of  the  book.     It  is  chiefly  biographical. 

Old  South  Leaflets.     D.  C.  Heath  &  Co. 

Several  of  these  important  papers  belong  to  this  period. 

A  Larger  History  of  the  United  States  of  America  to  the  close 
of  Jackson's  Administration.  (Higginson.)  Harper 
Brothers. 

Peter  Cooper.     (Raymond.)     Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Co. 
Poems  of  American  Patriotism.     (Matthews.)     Scribner's. 
Words  of  Lincoln.     Maynard,  Merrill  &  Co. 
Twelve  Naval  Captains.     (Sewall.)     Scribner's. 

Yankee  Ships  and  Yankee  Sailors.     (Barnes.)     The  Macmillan 

Co. 
American  History  Studies.     (Caldwell.)     Ainsworth  &  Co. 

Girls  Who  Became  Famous.     (Bolton.)     T.  Y.  Crowell  &  Co. 
Four  American  Inventors.     (Perry.)     Werner  School  Book  Co. 
The  Gettysburg  Speech.     (Lincoln.)     Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Co. 
Boys  of '6 1.     (Coffin.)     Harper  Brothers. 

Four  American  Naval  Heroes.  (Beebe  )  Werner  School  Book 
Co. 

My  Hunt  after  the  Captain.    (Holmes.)    Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Co. 
Julius  Caesar.     (Liddell.)     Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Co. 

Life  of  Nelson.  (Southey.)  Ginn  &  Co.,  American  Book  Co., 
The  Macmillan  Co. 

The  Great  Debate.     (Hayne-Webster.)     Houghton,  Mifflin  & 

Co. 
Somewhat  difficult,  but  of  great  value. 


LIST  OF  BOOKS  289 

The  Two  Great  Retreats.     (Grote-Segur.)     Ginn  &  Co. 
Napoleon's  retreat  from  Moscow. 

History  of  Rome  for  Beginners.    (Shuckburgh.)    The  Macmillan 
Co. 

Explorers  and  Travelers.     (Greely.)     Scribner's. 

3.   Books  for  teachers. 

Student's   History  of  the   United   States.      (Channing.)      The 

Macmillan  Co. 
Excellent. 

Guide  to  the  Study  of  American  History.     (Channing  and  Hart.) 
Ginn  &  Co. 

Nature  and  Man  in  America.     (Shaler.)     Scribner's. 
The  Making  of  the  Nation.     (Walker.)     Scribner's. 
Thomas  Jefferson.     (Morse.)     Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Co. 
Alexander  Hamilton.     (Lodge.)     Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Co. 
John  Quincy  Adams.     (Morse.)     Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Co. 

Daniel  Webster.     (Lodge.)     Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Co. 

These  four  biographies  belong  to  the  American  Statesmen 
Series. 

Civil  Government.     (Macy.)    Ginn  &  Co. 

The  Last  Quarter  Century  in  the  United  States.     (Andrews.) 
2  Vols.     Scribner's. 

American  Territorial  Development.     (Caldwell.)     Ainsworth  & 
Co. 

Half  Hours  with  American  History.     Vol.  II.     J.  B.  Lippincott. 

The  United  States  of  America.     (Channing.)     1765-1865.    The 

Macmillan  Co. 
An  excellent  survey. 

The  Middle  Period.     (Burgess.)     Scribner's. 


290  SPECIAL  METHOD   IN   HISTORY 

Division   and   Reunion.      (Wilson.)       1829-1889.      Longmans, 
Green  &  Co. 

American  History  Leaflets.   30  numbers.    (Hart  and  Charming.) 
Lovell  &  Co. 

Bird's-eye  View  of  our  Civil  War.      (Dodge.)     Houghton,  Mif- 
tlin  &  Co. 

The  Civil  War  and  the  Constitution.      (Burgess.)      2  Vols. 
Scribner's. 

The  Fortune  of  the  Republic.     (Emerson.)     Houghton,  Mifflin 
&Co. 

Abraham  Lincoln.     (Morse.)    2  Vols.     Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Co. 

Europe  in  the  Nineteenth  Century.     (Judson.)     Scribner's. 
A  good  survey  of  important  later  events  in  Europe. 

History  of  Modern  Europe.     (Schwill.)     Scribner's. 
Excellent  for  the  teacher's  use. 

Shorter  History  of  England.    (Green.)    The  Macmillan  Co. 

Source  Book  of  English  History.     (Kendall.)     The  Macmillan 
Co. 

General  History  of  Europe.    (Thatcher  and  Schwill.)    Scribner's. 
European  Colonies.     (Payne.)     The  Macmillan  Co. 

History  of  the  Colonization  of  Africa.     (Johnston.)     University 
Press. 

Essay  on  Lord  Clive.     (Macaulay.)     The  Macmillan  Co. 
Essay  on  Warren  Hastings.     (Macaulay.)     The  Macmillan  Co. 

Report  of  the  Committee  of  Seven.     The  Macmillan  Co. 
An  excellent  discussion  of  the  history  problem. 

Methods  of  teaching  and  studying  History.      (Edited  by  Hall.) 
D.  C.  Heath  &  Co. 

Counsel  on  the  Reading  of  Books.    (Introduction  by  Van  Dyke.) 
Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Co. 


LIST  OF   BOOKS  29 1 

The  teaching  of  History  and  Civics.      (Bourne.)      Longmans, 
Green  &  Co. 

How  to  study  and  teach  History.      (Hinsdale.)      D.  Appleton 
&Co. 

Method  in  History.     (Mace.)     Ginn  &  Co. 

McMaster's  History  of  the  People  of  the  United  States.     5  Vols. 
D.  Appleton  &  Co. 

History  of  the  United  States.     6  Vols.     Schouler. 

Narrative  and  Critical  History  of  America.      8  Vols.     (Justin 
Winsor.)     Illustrated.     Houghton,  Mi  til  in  &  Co. 


Printed  in  the  United  States  of  America. 


METHODS  IN  ELEMENTARY   EDUCATION 


A  Series  of  Educational  Books  in  Two  Groups  covering  the  General 

Principles  of  Method  and  Its  Special  Applications  to  th« 

Common  School 

BY 

CHARLES  A.  McMURRY,  PhJX 

Northern  Illinois  State  Normal  School,  DeKalb,  Ittuuit 

WITH 
F.  M.  McMURRY 

AS  JOINT  AUTHOR  FOR  METHOD  OF  RECITATION 

I.   BOOKS  OP  GENERAL  METHOD  IN   EDUCATION 

The  three  books  in  this  group  deal  with  the  fundamental,  con- 
prehensive  principles  of  Education  for  the  school  as  a  whole, 
and  include  both  instruction  and  management. 

11    BOOKS  OP  SPECIAL  METHOD    IN    COMMON    SCHOOL 

STUDIES.  Each  school  study  is  treated  in  a  separate  book, 
and  the  selection  and  arrangement  of  material,  and  the  method 
of  instruction  appropriate  to  that  study  throughout  its  course, 
sre  fully  discussed.  Illustrative  lessons  and  extensive  lists  of 
books  of  special  value  as  helps  to  teachers  and  schools  are 
included. 


THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY 

64-66  FIFTH  AVENUE.  NEW  YORK 

BOSTON  CHICAGO  ATLANTA         SAW  FRANCISCO 

«o*  Boylston  St.    978-388  Wabash  Are.    Empire  Build  "g    3x0-?**  Sansome  St 

I 


GENERAL  METHOD   IN   EDUCATION 
THE   ELEMENTS  OF  GENERAL  METHOD 

BASED  ON  THE  IDEAS  OF  HERBART 
By  CHARLES  A.  McMURRY 

New  edition,  revised  and  enlarged.       Cloth.    12mo.    881  pp 
OO  cents          postage  1O  cents 

This  volume  discusses  fully  the  controlling  principles  of  our  progres- 
sive modern  education,  such  as  The  Aim  of  Education  ;  The  Materials 
and  Sources  of  Moral  Training ;  The  Relative  Value  of  Studies  in  the 
School  Course ;  The  Nature  and  Value  of  Interest  as  a  Vital  Element 
in  Instruction  ;  The  Correlation  of  Studies  ;  Inductive  and  Deductive 
Processes  as  Fundamental  to  All  Thinking  ;  Apperception,  its  Close 
and  Constant  Application  to  the  Process  of  Learning ;  The  Will,  its 
Training  and  Function  and  its  Close  Relation  to  Other  Forms  of 
Mental  Action. 

The  book  closes  with  an  account  of  Herbart  and  his  disciples  in 
Germany,  and  a  summary  of  their  pronounced  ideas  and  influence 
upon  education. 

THE  METHOD  OF  THE   RECITATION 

New  edition,  revised  and  enlarged 

By  CHARLES  A.  McMURRY  and  FRANK  M.  McMURRY 

Cloth.    12mo.    339  pp.  9O  cents  postage  1O  cent* 

This  book,  as  a  whole,  is  designed  to  simplify,  organize,  and  illustrate 
the  chief  principles  of  class-room  method  in  elementary  schools.  A  few 
important  fundamental  principles  are  carefully  worked  out  as  a  basis. 
The  essential  steps,  in  the  acquisition  of  knowledge  in  all  studies,  are 
worked  out  and  applied  to  different  branches.  The  developing  method 
of  instruction  so  much  used  in  the  oral  treatment  of  lessons  is  worked 
ont,  and  the  method  of  careful  and  suitable  questioning  discussed. 

Two  chapters  are  given,  consisting  of  Illustrative  Lessons  selected 
from  the  different  studies  and  worked  out  in  full,  as  examples  of  a  right 
method.  In  these  examples,  and  also  in  the  discussions,  the  applica- 
tion of  the  principles  of  apperception,  interest,  induction,  and  deduc- 
tion to  class-room  work  are  shown.  The  peculiar  application  of  these 
various  pnnciples  to  different  studies  is  carefully  discussed. 


SCHOOL  AND  CLASS  MANAGEMENT— In  Preparation 


SPECIAL  METHOD  IN  COMMON  SCHOOL  STUDIES 

SPECIAL  flETHOD   IN   THE   READING  OF  COM- 
PLETE  ENGLISH    CLASSICS    IN   THE 
COMMON   SCHOOLS 

By  CHARLES  A.   McMURRY 
Cloth.    12mo.    254  pp.    75  cents,  postage  9  cents 

This  discusses  in  a  comprehensive  way  the  regular  reading  lessons, 
the  choice  of  stories,  poems,  and  longer  masterpieces,  adapted  to  the 
needs  of  the  various  grades  from  the  fourth  to  the  eighth  school  year 
inclusive  ;  the  value  for  school  use  of  the  best  literature,  including 
complete  masterpieces,  both  long  and  short ;  method  in  reading ;  and 
principles  of  class-room  work.  A  descriptive  list  of  more  than  four 
hundred  books  forms  the  last  chapter.  The  list  has  been  carefully 
made,  and  is  designed  to  assist  teachers  and  superintendents  in  select* 
ing  suitable  reading  material  for  the  successive  grades. 


SPECIAL  nETHOD  IN  PRIHARY  READING  AND 
ORAL   WORK   IN   STORY  TELLING 

By  CHARLES  A.   McMURRY 
Cloth.     12mo.     75  cents  postage  8  cents 

The  relation  of  oral  story  work  to  early  exercises  in  primary  reading 
is  explained  at  length.  A  full  discussion  of  oral  methods  in  primary 
grades  and  a  detailed  account  of  primary  exercises  in  reading  are  given. 
The  use  of  games  for  incidental  reading  is  also  fully  discussed  and 
illustrated.  

SPECIAL  METHOD   IN   HISTORY 

By  CHARLES  A.  McMURRY 

NEW  EDITION   IN  PREPARATION 

This  book  contains  a  course  of  study  in  history  with  a  full  discus- 
lion  of  methods  of  treating  topics.  The  value,  selection,  and  arrange- 
ment of  historical  materials  for  each  grade  are  discussed,  and  illustrative 
lessons  given.  The  relation  of  history  to  geography,  literature,  and 
other  studies  is  treated,  and  lists  of  books  suitable  for  each  year  are 
supplied. 

3 


SPECIAL   METHOD   IN   GEOGRAPHY 

By  CHARLES  A.  McMURRT 
NEW  EDITION   IN    PREPARATION 

The  entire  course  of  study  is  laid  out  after  a  careful  selection  o{ 
topics.  Methods  of  class  instruction  are  fully  discussed,  and  illustra- 
tions are  given  OT  geograpical  topics  treated  in  detail.  The  close 
relation  of  geography  to  other  studies  is  shown,  and  the  best  lists  of 
books  supplied. 


SPECIAL   flETHOD   IN   NATURAL  SCIENCE 

By  CHARLES  A.  McMURRT 

NEW   EDITION    IN    PREPARATION 

The  history  of  science  teaching  in  elementary  schools  is  given.  The 
basis  for  selecting  the  topics  for  a  course  of  study,  and  the  method  of 
class  instruction  suitable  to  object  study,  experimentation,  etc.,  are  fully 
discussed.  The  book  contains,  also,  a  carefully  selected  list  of  the 
best  books  for  the  use  of  teachers  and  pupils. 


A  COURSE  OF  STUDY  FOR  THE  EIGHT  GRADES 
OF  THE  COMMON  SCHOOL 


IN  PREPARATION 


THE   MACMILLAN   COMPANY 

64-66  FIFTH  AVENUE,  NEW  YORK 

BOSTON  CHICAGO  ATLANTA          SAN  FRANCISCO 

100  Boyliton  St     ^78-388  Wabash  Are.    EmpireBuild'g    319  335  S*n§ome  8t 

4 


L  005  618  827  9 


A     001  138393     2 


